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Histology & Cell Biology - Histologie - Istologia

SIMPLE CONTENTS 

NEWS & UPDATES
MAPS
OVERVIEW
METHODS
CELL & ECM
TISSUES
SENSORY ORGANS
ORGANS
REFERENCES

TOC
DETAILED CONTENTS

NEWS & UPDATES
MAPS
OVERVIEW

METHODS (SAMPLE PREPARATION, MICROSCOPY, STAINING)               

CELL (MEMBRANES, NUCLEUS, CYTOPLASM, ORGANELLES, CELL SIGNALING, CELL CYCLE & REPLICATION)
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX = GROUND SUBSTANCE + FIBERS

TISSUES (CONNECTIVE, EPITHELIAL, MUSCULAR, NERVOUS, MINERALIZED)
EPITHELIUM (CELLS, TYPES , GLANDS)
GLANDS (ENDOCRINE, EXOCRINE (MEROCRINE = ECCRINE, APOCRINE, HOLOCRINE (SEBACEOUS, MEIBOMIAN)))
GENERAL (SUPPORTING) CONNECTIVE = ECM + CELLS (RESIDENT + WANDERING) (LOOSE (RETICULAR, ADIPOSE), DENSE (IRREGULAR, REGULAR))
SPECIAL CONNECTIVE (CARTILAGE, BONE, HEMOPOIETIC, BLOOD, LYMPH)
ADIPOSE
BLOOD & HEMOPOIESIS & BONE MARROW
CARTILAGE & BONE = SKELETAL & OSTEOGENESIS
MUSCLE (SMOOTH, CARDIAC, SKELETAL)
NERVOUS (CENTRAL, PERIPHERAL, SPECIAL RECEPTORS)
SENSORY ORGANS & SPECIALIZED DIFFUSE RECEPTORS
FEELING (TOUCH, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, PAIN, & PROPRIOCEPTION)
EYE & SIGHT
EAR & HEARING & BALANCE

ORGANS
LYMPHOID = IMMUNE (BONE MARROW, THYMUS, LYMPH NODE, SPLEEN)
INTEGUMENTARY (SKIN, SKIN APPENDAGES)
CIRCULATORY (HEART, BLOOD VESSELS)
RESPIRATORY & SMELL
URINARY
ORAL CAVITY & ALIMENTARY CANAL & TASTE (MOUTH, ESOPHAGUS, STOMACH, SMALL INTESTINE, COLON)
DIGESTIVE GLANDS (SALIVARY, LIVER, GALLBLADDER, PANCREAS)
ENDOCRINE (HYPOPHYSIS, PINEAL GLAND, THYROID, PARATHYROID, ADRENAL)
MALE REPRODUCTIVE (SPERMATOGENESIS, SPERM TRANSPORT, MATURATION)
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE (FOLLICULOGENESIS, MENSTRUAL CYCLE, FERTILIZATION, PLACENTATION, LACTATION)

REFERENCES

TOC
MAPS

OVERVIEW
(Chandar LIR Cell 2019 Contents) V2 PDF
(Dudek HY Cell 2010 Contents) V1 PDF
(Gartner BRS 2014 Contents) V1 PDF
(Poirier Sommaire) V1 PDF
(Pawlina Contents) V1 PDF

TOC
METHODS
(Poirier Moléculaire) V1 PDF

Tissue Preparation
Histological Sections For LM
Paraffin technique
Frozen
Semithin
Stainings
H&E staining
Other Types
Microscopy
LM
EM
Cytochemistry
& Histochemistry

TOC
CELL
(Poirier)
(Poirier Moléculaire)

OVERVIEW - CELL MEMBRANE - MEMBRANES
(Dudek HY Histology Membrane) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Stem Cells & Their Differentiation ) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Biological Membranes) V1 PDF
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION

CELL MEMBRANE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
THE PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER
MEMBRANE PROTEINS
GLYCOCALYX (CELL COAT)

CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PROCESSES
(Chandar LIR 2018 Basic Concepts of Transport) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Active Transport) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Glucose Transport) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Drug Transport) V1 PDF
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
FACILITATED DIFFUSION OF IONS

CELL-TO-CELL COMMUNICATION
CELLS
MEMBRANE RECEPTORS

CELL SIGNALING
(Chandar LIR 2018 G Protein Signaling) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Catalytic Receptor Signaling) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Steroid Receptor Signaling) V1 PDF
MECHANISMS
Endocrine
Paracrine
Autrocrine
Neurotransmiters
Neuroendocrine
LIGANDS
Steroid hormones
Peptide hormones and growth factors
Nitric oxide
Neurotransmitters
Eicosanoids
RECEPTORS
G-protein
Receptor and nonreceptor tyrosine kinases
Cytokine receptors
Tyrosine phosphatases and Ser-Thr kinases
SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHWAYS
cAMP pathway
cGMP pathway
Calcium-calmodulin pathway
Phospholipids and calcium pathways
Ras, Raf and MAP kinase pathway
JAK/STAT pathway
NF-kB transcription factor pathway
Integrins/actin pathway
SIGNALING PATHWAYS
Fibroblast growth factor signaling
Bone morphogenetic protein signaling
Transforming growth factor-beta signaling
Notch signaling
Wingless signaling
Hedgehog signaling

CELL DEATH, NECROSIS, & APOPTOSIS
NEOPLASIA
ONCOGENES & TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENES

PLASMALEMMA - CYTOSKELETON ASSOCIATION
integrins
RED BLOOD CELLS
THE CYTOSKELETON OF NONERYTHROID CELLS

CYTOPLASMIC STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Organelles) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Cytoskeleton) V1 PDF

ORGANELLES

RIBOSOMES
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
PERIPHERAL ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
MITOCHONDRIA
GOLGI APPARATUS
COATED VESICLES
LYSOSOMES
PEROXISOMES

INCLUSIONS

CYTOSKELETON

MICROTUBULES (& CILIA)
CENTROSOME (MTOC) AND CENTRIOLES
ACTIN FILAMENTS (MICROFILAMENTS)
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS IHC stains intermediate filaments
PLECTIN

ORGANELLE INTERACTIONS

UPTAKE & RELEASE OF MATERIAL BY CELL

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

INTRACELLULAR DIGESTION
NONLYSOSOMAL DIGESTION
LYSOSOMAL DIGESTION
 
NUCLEUS
(Dudek HY Histology Nucleus) V1 PDF
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
OUTER NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
INNER NUCLEAR MEMBRANE
PERI NUCLEAR CISTERNA
NUCLEAR PORES
NUCLEAR PORE COMPLEX

NUCLEOLUS

NUCLEOPLASM & NUCLEAR PARTICLES
INTERCHROMATIN GRANULES
PERI CHROMATIN GRANULES
THE HNRNP PARTICLES
CAJAL BODIES (COILED BODIES)

CHROMATIN
HETERO
EU

CHROMOSOMES
KARYOTYPE
THE TOTAL GENETIC COMPLEMENT OF AN INDIVIDUAL IS STORED IN ITS CHROMOSOMES

DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
NUCLEOTIDES
THE DNA DOUBLE HELIX
EXONS
INTRONS
A CODON
A GENE
A GENOME

RIBONUCLEIC ACID
mRNA
tRNA
RIBOSOMAL RNA
REGULATORY RNAs INCLUDE
microRNA (miRNA), LARGE INTERGENIC NONCODING RNA (lincRNA), SMALL INTERFERING RNAs (siRNA), & PIWI-INTERACTING RNA (piRNA)

CELL CYCLE
TWO MAJOR PERIODS COMPRISE THE CELL CYCLE
MITOSIS

MEIOSIS
THE STAGES OF MEIOSIS

APOPTOSIS & NECROSIS
APOPTOSIS
NECROSIS

GENOME, GENE EXPRESSION,
(Chandar LIR 2018 The Eukaryotic Genome) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 DNA Replication) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Transcription) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Translation) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Regulation of Gene Expression) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Protein Trafficking) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Protein Degradation) V1 PDF
CELL GROWTH & DEATH
(Chandar LIR 2018 The Cell Cycle) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Regulation of the Cell Cycle) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Abnormal Cell Growth) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Cell Death) V1 PDF
(Chandar LIR 2018 Aging and Senescence) V1 PDF

Cell traficking
Proteasome

BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEDICAL GENETICS

TOC
EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
(Chandar LIR 2018 ECM & Cell Adhesion) V1 PDF

OVERVIEW - EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
STRUCTURE
FUNCTION

GROUND SUBSTANCE
TISSUE FLUID
GAGs
PROTEOGLYCANS
GLYCOPROTEINS (MULTIADHESIVE GLYCOPROTEINS)
FIBRONECTIN RECEPTORS

FIBERS (Collagen, Reticular, Elastic...) 
Collagen fibers
Reticular fibers COL3A1
Elastic fibers ElastinFibrillinFBN1 FBN2FBN3 EMILIN1 Elaunin
COLLAGEN
ELASTIC FIBERS

TOC
TISSUES
Histogenesis
Identifying
EPITHELIAL
CONNECTIVE
ECM
Cells
MUSCLE
NERVOUS

TOC
EPITHELIUM & GLANDS
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF

OVERVIEW-EPITHELIA

STRUCTURE

CLASSIFICATION

SHAPES OF INDIVIDUAL CELLS (SIDE VIEW)
Squamous cell (flattened)
Cuboidal cell (about equal dimensions)
Columnar cell (taller than it is wide)
ARRANGEMENT OF THE CELLS (ONE OR MORE LAYERS)
One layer - SIMPLE epithelia
squamous - Endothelium - Mesothelium
More than one layer - STRATIFIED epithelia
Named according to the shapes of the surface layer cells
SPECIAL CATEGORIES
Pseudostratified epithelium
Urothelium

STRUCTURE

LOCATION

SURFACE - PROTEINS OF EPITHELIUM

Position & Stability maintained by cell adhesion molecules & cell junctions

CELL ADHESION MOLECULES
Ca2+ - dependent
Selectins
Cadherins
Ca2+ - independent
Immunoglobulins - superfamily (Ig-CAMs)
Integrins : alpha-subunit beta-subunit F-actin

CELL JUNCTIONS
Symmetric
Tight junctions - F-actin
Anchoring junctions : Belt desmosome F-actin - Spot desmosome Intermediate filaments
Communicating junctions - Gap junctions
Asymmetric
Hemidesmosome - Intermediate filaments - Phosphorylation / dephosphorylation

LATERAL / CELL - CELL
Cell adhesion molecules: Adherens junction Cadherin Desmosome Desmoglein
Ion channels: Gap junction/Connexon Connexin
Cytoskeleton: Desmosome Desmoplakin Plakoglobin Tonofibril
other membrane proteins: Tight junction Claudin Occludin MARVELD2
THE JUNCTIONAL COMPLEX
GAP JUNCTIONS (COMMUNICATING JUNCTIONS; NEXUS)
LATERAL INTERDIGITATIONS (PLICAE)

BASAL / CELL - MATRIX
Basal lamina Hemidesmosome/Tonofibril Focal adhesion Costamere
BASEMENT MEMBRANE
Basal lamina Type IV collagen Laminin Fibronectin
Reticular lamina Type III collagen
TWO ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS OF THE BASAL DOMAIN OF THE CELL MEMBRANE
BASAL PLASMA MEMBRANE INFOLDINGS

APICAL DIFFERENTIATIONS
Cilia/Kinocilium Microvilli/Stereocilia (STRC)
MICROVILLI
F-actin - G-actin - Treadmilling - ATP
STEREOCILIA
F-actin - G-actin
CILIA
Microtubules - alpha- and beta-tubulin - Dynamic instability - GTP

DEVELOPMENT

CELL TURNOVER

FUNCTION
TRANSCELLULAR TRANSPORT
Diffusion
Carrier protein-mediated transport
Vesicle-mediated transport
ABSORPTION
endocytosis or pinocytosis
SECRETION
exocytosis
PROTECTION
epidermis
SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY
GLANDULAR TISSUE
SENSING THE EXTRACELLULAR ENVIRONMENT
HOST IMMUNE RESPONSE

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

TOC
GLANDS

STRUCTURE

CLASSIFICATION

ENDOCRINE

EXOCRINE

UNICELLULAR GLANDS
Goblet cells

MULTICELLULAR GLANDS
SIMPLE (UNBRANCHED EXCRETORY DUCT)
Secretory portion
Tubular - Coiled - Tubular branched - Acinar / Alveolar
COMPOUND (BRANCHED EXCRETORY DUCT)
Secretory portion
Branched tubular
Branched acinar/alveolar
Branched tubulo-acinar
Organization
Acinus : Mucous Serous Serous-mucous (mixed)
Lobule
Lobe

Human development & genetic diseases
Epithelial Differentiation

TOC
CONNECTIVE & ADIPOSE
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF
(Poirier) V1 PDF

OVERVIEW - CONNECTIVE TISSUE
= ECM (Ground Substance & Fibers) + Cells
MMPs and TIMPs

PHYSIOLOGY
SOFT TISSUE
FIBROSIS
SCARRING

CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS

FIXED CELLS - RESIDENT
FIBROCYTE
RETICULAR CELL
TENDON CELL
MELANOCYTE
FIBROBLASTS
PERICYTES (ADVENTITIAL CELLS; PERIVASCULAR CELLS)
ADIPOSE CELLS (ADIPOCYTES)
MAST CELLS
MACROPHAGES

TRANSIENT CELLS - WANDERING
MAST CELLS
MACROPHAGES
LYMPHOID CELLS

CONNECTIVE TISSUE CLASSIFICATION - TYPES

EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Mucous mucoid tissue (Wharton jelly)
Mesenchymal tissue

CONNECTIVE TISSUE PROPER - ADULT
LOOSE (AREOLAR) CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Reticular
Adipose Brown White
DENSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Dense irregular connective tissue
Submucosa Dermis
Dense regular connective tissue
Ligament
Tendon
Aponeurosis

ELASTIC TISSUE

RETICULAR TISSUE

SPECIALIZED CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Blood, Cartilage & Bone

MEMBRANES

FIBROUS TYPES

TOC
ADIPOSE TISSUE

TOC
BLOOD & HEMATOPOIESIS
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF
(Poirier) V1 PDF

OVERVIEW - BLOOD

BLOOD CONSTITUENTS

PLASMA

FORMED ELEMENTS OF BLOOD
ERYTHROCYTES (RED BLOOD CELLS; RBCS)
LEUKOCYTES (WHITE BLOOD CELLS; WBCS)
PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)

BONE MARROW
YELLOW MARROW
IN ADULTS

HEMOPOIETIC GROWTH FACTORS (COLONY-STIMULATING FACTORS [CSFS])

PRENATAL HEMOPOIESIS
The bone marrow first participates in hemopoiesis at about 6 months' gestation and assumes an increasingly large role thereafter
The liver and spleen cease hemopoiesis at about the time of birth

POSTNATAL HEMOPOIESIS
COMPARISON
INITIAL STEPS IN BLOOD CELL FORMATION (STEM CELLS)
ERYTHROCYTE FORMATION (ERYTHROPOIESIS)
GRANULOCYTE FORMATION
MONOCYTE FORMATION (CFU-M)
PLATELET FORMATION
LYMPHOCYTE FORMATION (LYMPHOPOIESIS)

The Pluripotent Stem Cell
Erythrocytes
Leukocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils & Mast Cells
Monocyte Lineage
Monocytes
Macrophages
Multinucleated Giant Cells
Antigen-Presenting Cells
Lymphocytes
B Cells and Plasma Cells
T CellsHelper T Cells Cytotoxic T Cells

TOC
CARTILAGE & BONE

CARTILAGE
(Dudek HY Histology Cartilage) V1 PDF
HYALINE CARTILAGE
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
FIBROCARTILAGE

BONE
(Dudek HY Histology Bone) V1 PDF
STRUCTURE
BONE CELLS
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE
ORGANIZATION OF LAMELLAE
HISTOGENESIS OF BONE
BONE REMODELING
REPAIR OF A BONE FRACTURE
ROLE OF VITAMINS IN BONE FORMATION
REVIEW OF THE ROLE OF HORMONES IN BONE FORMATION

JOINTS
SYNARTHROSES
DIARTHROSES (SYNOVIAL JOINTS)

BONE DISORDERS

OSTEOGENESIS - (OSSIFICATION; BONE FORMATION)
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSTEOGENESIS
Mesenchyme > Bone formation - Woven bone > Lamellar bone                            
ENDOCHONDRAL OSTEOGENESIS
Cartilage > Bone formation
Primary center of osteogenesis (diaphysis) : Reserve zone > Proliferative zone > Hypertrophic zone > Vascular invasion zone
Secondary centers of osteogenesis (epiphyses)

TOC
MUSCLE
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF

OVERVIEW-MUSCLE

SKELETAL MUSCLE STRUCTURE
CONNECTIVE TISSUE INVESTMENTS
SKELETAL MUSCLE CELL TYPES
SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS
SATELLITE CELLS
SKELETAL MUSCLE CROSS-STRIATIONS
MYOFILAMENT MOLECULAR ORGANIZATION

SKELETAL MUSCLE CONTRACTION
HUXLEY'S SLIDING-FILAMENT MODEL
INITIATION AND REGULATION OF CONTRACTION
RELAXATION
A MOTOR UNIT

SKELETAL MUSCLE INNERVATION
THE MYONEURAL JUNCTION
THE MUSCLE SPINDLE (NEUROMUSCULAR SPINDLE)
THE GTOs

CARDIAC MUSCLE
GENERAL FEATURES-CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS
STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF CARDIAC MUSCLE CELLS

SMOOTH MUSCLE
STRUCTURE-SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS
CONTRACTION OF SMOOTH MUSCLE OCCURS MORE SLOWLY AND LASTS LONGER
INNERVATION OF SMOOTH MUSCLE

CONTRACTILE NONMUSCLE CELLS
MYOEPITHELIAL CELLS
MYOFIBROBLASTS

TOC
NERVOUS
(Dudek HY Histology)  V1 PDF
(Poirier Neurons) V1 PDF
(Poirier Central) V1 PDF
(Poirier Peripheral) V1 PDF
Cerebral Cortex
Cerebellar Cortex

OVERVIEW-NERVOUS SYSTEM
ANATOMICALLY
FUNCTIONALLY
NERVOUS TISSUE CONTAINS TWO TYPES OF CELLS

NERVOUS SYSTEM HISTOGENESIS
THE NEURAL TUBE
NEURAL CREST CELLS
 
NERVOUS SYSTEM CELLS
NEURONS
THE NEUROGLIAL CELLS

SYNAPSES
CLASSIFICATION
SYNAPTIC MORPHOLOGY
NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND NEUROMODULATORS

NERVE FIBERS
MYELIN SHEATH
NODES OF RANVIER
THE INTERNODES

NERVES
CONNECTIVE TISSUE INVESTMENTS
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NERVES
CONDUCTION VELOCITY OF NERVES

GANGLIA
AUTONOMIC GANGLIA
CRANIOSPINAL GANGLIA

NERVOUS SYSTEM HISTOPHYSIOLOGY
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
AN ACTION POTENTIAL
AXONS TRANSPORT
TROPHIC FUNCTION OF NERVOUS TISSUE

SOMATIC & AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS
SNS
ANS

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
WHITE MATTER & GRAY MATTER
MENINGES
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID

NERVE TISSUE DEGENERATION & REGENERATION
DEATH OF NEURONS
TRANSECTION OF PERIPHERAL AXONS INDUCES CHANGES IN THE SOMA, INCLUDING CHROMATOLYSIS (DISRUPTION OF NISSL BODIES WITH A CONCOMITANT LOSS OF CYTOPLASMIC BASOPHILIA). INCREASE IN SOMA VOLUME, AND MOVEMENT OF THE NUCLEUS TO A PERIPHERAL POSITION

TOC
SPECIAL SENSES - SPECIALIZED DIFFUSE RECEPTORS

OVERVIEW-SPECIAL SENSE RECEPTORS
are responsible for the five special senses: taste, smell. vision, hearing, and feeling (which includes touch, pressure, temperature, pain, and proprioception)
TASTE
SMELL
FEELING
Touch
Pressure
Temperature
Pain
Proprioception
SIGHT - EYE
HEARING - EAR

FUNCTION

SPECIALIZED DIFFUSE RECEPTORS

SENSORY RECEPTORS
may be categorized into three groups:
exteroreceptors, which access information from the outside environment;
proprioceptors, which access information from muscles, tendons, and joint structures;
and interoceptors,  which access information from within the internal environment
Mechanoreceptors - Thermoreceptors - Nociceptors

dendritic nerve endings
deep touch, pressure, temperature, pain, and proprioception
one type of sensory stimulus
divided morphologically into free nerve terminals & encapsulated nerve endings

TOUCH & PRESSURE RECEPTORS
PACINIAN CORPUSCLES = LAMELLAR encapsulated
multilayer capsule - often resemble a sliced onion -  inner unmyelinated nerve terminal and perceives pressure, touch, and vibration
RUFFINI ENDINGS = BULBOUS encapsulated
branched terminals - pressure, stretching, and touch
MEISSNER CORPUSCLES = TACTILE encapsulated
fine touch - light
FREE NERVE ENDINGS - unencapsulated, unmyelinated
touch
KRAUSE END BULBS = BULBOID

MERKEL NERVE ENDING
pressure

TEMPERATURE & PAIN RECEPTORS
Cold receptors respond to temperatures below 25°C to 30°C
Heat receptors respond to temperatures above 40°C to 42°C
Nociceptors are sensitive to pain stimuli

PROPRIOCEPTIVE RECEPTORS
are of two types, muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs

TOC
EYE - SENSE OF SIGHT
(Dudek HY Histology)  V1 PDF

CONTENTS
OVERVIEW
TUNICA FIBROSA
TUNICA VASCULOSA
REFRACTIVE MEDIA
THE RETINA
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE EYE
END OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW
FIBROUS TUNIC (OUTER) = Sclera + receives light through Cornea
UVEA / VASCULAR TUNIC (MIDDLE) = Choroid + Ciliary body + Iris
RETINA (INNER) = Nonsensory retinal pigmented epithelium + Sensory retina  - optic nerve
light focused by LENS on retina = Lens capsule + Lens substance (Cortical lens cell fibers + Nuclear lens cell fibers)
CHAMBERS = Aqueous humor → (Posterior chamber → Anterior chamber) = Anterior segment → Canal of Schlemm → To episcleral veins
+ Vitreous cavity = "Posterior" segment
MUSCLES = intrinsic muscles -  accommodation - extrinsic muscles
EYEBALL lacrimal fluid (tears) - lacrimal gland
ANTERIOR SEGMENT
Adnexa (Eyebrow, Eyelid, Conjunctiva, Lacrimal system, Orbit) - Fibrous tunic - Anterior chamber - Aqueous humour - Iris - Posterior chamber - Ciliary body - Lens ( Capsule of lens,Zonule of Zinn)
POSTERIOR SEGMENT
Vitreous chamber -  Vitreous body - Retina - Choroid
OTHER
Keratocytes - Ocular immune system - Optical coherence tomography - Eye care professional - Eye disease - Refractive error - Accommodation - Physiological Optics - Visual perception

TUNICA FIBROSA

SCLERA opaque
Episcleral layer - Schlemm's canal - Trabecular meshwork

CORNEA  transparent - avascular - limbus  
Layers
Corneal epithelium
stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium - anterior aspect
microvilli
Bowman’s layer
non cellular
Stroma
type I and V collagen fibers
endothelium, forming the canal of Schlemm
Dua's layer
Descemet’s membrane
Corneal endothelium
simple squamous epithelium -  pinocytic vesicles, lines the posterior aspect - resorb fluid

TUNICA VASCULOSA

CHOROID
highly vascular, pigmented layer - melanocytes
Sattler's layer 
Bruch's membrane deepest
choriocapillary layer = Capillary lamina of choroid = Choriocapillaris
Chorioidal stroma

CILIARY BODY
Pars plicata - Pars plana
UVEAL PORTION
Supraciliaris
Ciliary processes
Fenestrated capillaries → Aqueous humor
nonpigmented inner layer - aqueous humor - suspensory ligaments
Ciliary muscle
parasympathetic fibers -  oculomotor nerve -  accommodation
NEUROEPITHELIAL PORTION - Ciliary epithelium
inner nonpigmented simple columnar → Aqueous humor
outer pigmented columnar epithelium → Aqueous humor
inner nonpigmented simple columnar - Zonula fibers → Lens

IRIS
pupil -  possessing pigmented cells
Anterior stromal surface
Dilator pupillae muscle
smooth muscle - sympathetic - dilating the pupil
Sphincter pupillae muscle
smooth muscle -  parasympathetic - constricting the pupil
Posterior neuroepithelial surface

REFRACTIVE MEDIA

AQUEOUS HUMOR
plasma-like fluid - formed by epithelial cells lining the ciliary processes

LENS
transparent
lens capsule
subcapsular epithelium
gap junctions
Lens fibers
lack - crystallins
suspensory ligament
enabling it to focus on distant object

VITREOUS BODY
retractile gel

RETINA
photoreception - ora serrata -  ciliary body -  posterior surface of the iris -  fovea centralis - macula
Macula (Perifoveal area - Parafoveal area - Fovea ( Foveal avascular zone - Foveola)) - Optic disc (Optic cup) - Ora serrata
CELLS + Muller cells
Photoreceptor cells (Cone cell, Rod cell) → (Horizontal cell) →
Bipolar cell → (Amacrine cell) →
Ganglion cell (Midget cell, Parasol cell, Bistratified cell, Giant retina ganglion cells, Photosensitive ganglion cell) →
Diencephalon : P cell, M cell, K cell, Muller glia
10 DISTINCT LAYERS
RETINAL PIGMENT(ED) EPITHELIUM - NON SENSORY <-> Photoreceptors - nonsensitive pigmented layer housing melanin-producing cells
columnar cells - Bruch membrane
junctional complexes - basal invaginations - melanin granules - pigment-filled microvillus processes
esterify vitamin A - phagocytose - synthesize melanin
PHOTORECEPTOR LAYER - SENSORY photosensitive layer containing rods & cones & several interneurons :

LAYER OF RODS & CONES - Outer & inner segments of rods and cones
RODS (SENSITIVE TO LIGHT OF LOW INTENSITY)
summation - incomplete cilium
Outer segments of rods
flattened membranous discs - rhodopsin
Inner segments of rods
Photoreception
light - rhodopsin (visual purple) - opsin - retinal
absorbs light - bleaching - Ca2+ ions
Ca2+ -  hyperpolarize
Ionic alterations
reassemble
reestablishment
CONES (SENSITIVE TO LIGHT OF HIGH INTENSITY)
much less numerous than rods - greater visual acuity
iodopsin
single
EXTERNAL LIMITING MEMBRANE - Zonulae adherentes of apical aspects of Muller cells with rods and cones
OUTER NUCLEAR LAYER - Nuclear regions of rods and cones
OUTER PLEXIFORM LAYER - Region of axodendritic synapses with rods, cones, horizontal cells, and bipolar cells - synaptic ribbons
INNER NUCLEAR LAYER - Soma of horizontal, bipolar, and amacrine cells
INNER PLEXIFORM LAYER - Region of axodendritic synapses with bipolar, amacrine, and ganglion cells
GANGLION CELL LAYER - Cell bodies of ganglion cells
indirectly, to the pineal body
Structure
optic disc - midget, diffuse, and stratified ganglion cells
Function
hyperpolarization of rods and cones - action potential
OPTIC NERVE FIBER LAYER - Unmyelinated axons of ganglion cells that form the optic nerve
INNER LIMITING MEMBRANE - Basal portions of Muller cells & their basement membranes

ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF THE EYE
CONJUNCTIVA
(transparent mucous membrane), a stratified columnar epithelium
goblet cells
EYELIDS
tarsal plates, contain highly modified sebaceous glands - modified sebaceous glands -  sweat glands
LACRIMAL APPARATUS
lacrimal gland
tubuloacinar gland -  myoepithelial cells -  lacrimal fluid (tears) - lysozyme - fornix
Lacrimal ducts (lacrimal canaliculi)
stratified squamous epithelium
lacrimal sac
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
nasolacrimal duct
pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

TOC
EAR (VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR APPARATUS) - SENSE OF HEARING & BALANCE
(Dudek HY Histology)  V1 PDF

CONTENTS
OUTER (EXTERNAL) EAR
Auricular muscles - Eardrum (umbo - pars flaccida)
Auricle (helix - antihelix - tragus - antitragus -  intertragic notch - earlobe)
External auditory canal = Ear canal
Tympanic membrane
MIDDLE EAR
TYMPANIC CAVITY <-> Auditory tube
Medial structures
oval window - round window - secondary tympanic membrane - prominence of facial canal - promontory of tympanic cavity
Posterior structures
mastoid cells - aditus to mastoid antrum - pyramidal eminence
BONY OSSICLES
Malleus
superior ligament - lateral ligament - anterior ligament
Incus
superior ligament - posterior ligament
Stapes
annular ligament
Muscles
stapedius
tensor tympani
AUDITORY TUBE / EUSTACHIAN TUBE
Torus tubarius
TEMPORAL BONE - INNER EAR
LABYRINTHS
membranous
bony
AUDITORY SYSTEM
GENERAL
Cochlea (Vestibular duct - Helicotrema - Tympanic duct - Modiolus - Cochlear cupula) - Perilymphatic space (Perilymph - Cochlear aqueduct) - Cells (Claudius - Boettcher)
COCHLEAR DUCT / scala media
Reissner's/vestibular membrane - Basilar membrane - Reticular membrane - Spiral ligament - Sulcus spiralis (externus - internus) - Spiral limbus
SCALA VESTIBULI
SCALA TYMPANI
SCALA MEDIA Endolymph - Stria vascularis
Organ of Corti (stereocilia - tip links)
Outer hair cells (OHCs) - Stereocilia only - Inner hair cell (IHC)
Outer phalangeal cells - Tunnel - Inner phalangeal cells
Tectorial membrane
VESTIBULAR SYSTEM
Vestibule
Kinocilium - Vestibular aqueduct (endolymphatic duct - endolymphatic sac) - Ductus reuniens
SACS - Endolymphatic duct - Perilymphatic duct - Labyrinth
Utricle (macula) <-> Semicircular canals
Saccule (macula)
macula - Otoliths (Otolithic membrane) -> Neurosensory epithelium - Supporting cells + Type I and II hair cells ( Kinocilium Stereocilia)
SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
Superior - Posterior - Horizontal ->
Ampullae (crista ampullaris) - Ampullary cupula -> Neurosensory epithelium - Supporting cells + Type I and II hair cells ( Kinocilium Stereocilia)
END OF CONTENTS

OUTER (EXTERNAL) EAR
Visible portion of ear (pinna), includes auditory canal & tympanic membrane
Transfers sound waves via vibration of tympanic membrane
Auricle = pinna
elastic cartilage - thin skin.
External auditory canal = Ear canal
skin - ceruminous glands
external auditory meatus -> (Tympanic membrane - skin -  simple cuboidal epithelium) -  fibroelastic connective tissue - transmits sound vibrations

MIDDLE EAR
Air-filled space with three bones called the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
Ossicles conduct and amplify sound from tympanic membrane to inner ear
TYMPANIC CAVITY <-> Auditory tube
ossicles - transmit vibrations of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) to the oval window = a membrane-covered opening in the bony wall of the cochlea
simple squamous epithelium, which changes to pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium near its opening to the auditory tube -  lamina propria
Medial structures
oval window - round window - secondary tympanic membrane - prominence of facial canal - promontory of tympanic cavity
Posterior structures
mastoid cells - aditus to mastoid antrum - pyramidal eminence
BONY OSSICLES
Malleus
superior ligament - lateral ligament - anterior ligament
Incus
superior ligament - posterior ligament
Stapes
annular ligament
Muscles
stapedius
tensor tympani
AUDITORY TUBE / EUSTACHIAN TUBE
Torus tubarius

TEMPORAL BONE  contains a space, known as the bony labyrinth, that houses the INNER EAR
Snail-shaped, fluid-filled cochlea
Contains basilar membrane that vibrates 2° to sound waves
Vibration transduced via specialized hair cells ->auditory nerve signaling->brainstem
Each frequency leads to vibration at specific location on basilar membrane (tonotopy) :
Low frequency heard at apex near helicotrema (wide & flexible)
High frequency heard best at base of cochlea (thin & rigid)

LABYRINTHS

BONY LABYRINTH perilymph
and houses the membranous labyrinth, which is filled with endolymph
Semicircular canals - semicircular ducts
vestibule - saccule and utricle
cochlea - modiolus
scala vestibuli - scala tympani - perilymph
scala media (cochlear duct) - endolymph
scala tympani  -  round window
scala vestibuli - oval window

MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH
endolymph - sensory structures - specializations of the epithelium
SACCULE & UTRICLE vestibule
simple squamous epithelium - endolymphatic sac - maculae - neuroepithelial hair cells - otolithic membrane
Vestibular hair cells
neuroepithelial cells - rigid stereocilia -  (kinocilium) -  detection of linear acceleration
The two types -  type I hair cells (bulbar) - cup-shaped afferent nerve ending - type II hair cells - small afferent terminals
Supporting cells
otolithic membrane
gelatinous layer - otoliths or otoconia
SEMICIRCULAR DUCTS utricle
detect angular acceleration
ampullae
Cristae ampullares - sensory regions -  cupula
ENDOLYMPHATIC DUCT
ENDOLYMPHATIC SAC
electron-dense - electron-lucent -  phagocytic cells
SCALA MEDIA ( COCHLEAR DUCT) spiral organ of Corti
scala vestibuli - scala tympani - helicotrema
vestibular (Reissner) membrane
Stria vascularis
vascularized - secrete endolymph
spiral prominence
external spiral sulcus -  cells of Claudius - cells of Boettcher
basilar membrane
keratin-like fibers - zona arcuata - zona pectinata
width - length -  base - apex - base
high-pitched (high-frequency) sound - apex
low-pitched (low-frequency) sound
tectorial membrane
makes contact with the processes of the hair cells
spiral organ of Corti
hair cells and various supporting cells - inner tunnel of Corti - outer tunnel ( space of Noel)
Hair cells
neuroepithelial cells - stiff stereocilia - basal body - function in the reception of sound
Inner hair cells (IHCs) - single row
Outer hair cells (OHCs) -  three or more rows - cochlear amplifiers - prestin
Inner and outer pillar cells
Inner and outer phalangeal cells
Cells of Hensen and border cells

AUDITORY SYSTEM - AUDITORY FUNCTION OF THE INNER EAR
basilar membrane -  round window
pillar cells
Movement of the stereocilia -  cochlear nerve
GENERAL
Cochlea (Vestibular duct - Helicotrema - Tympanic duct - Modiolus - Cochlear cupula) - Perilymphatic space (Perilymph - Cochlear aqueduct) - Cells (Claudius - Boettcher)
COCHLEAR DUCT / scala media
Reissner's/vestibular membrane - Basilar membrane - Reticular membrane - Spiral ligament - Sulcus spiralis (externus - internus) - Spiral limbus
SCALA VESTIBULI
SCALA TYMPANI
SCALA MEDIA Endolymph - Stria vascularis
Organ of Corti (stereocilia - tip links)
Outer hair cells (OHCs) - Stereocilia only - Inner hair cell (IHC)
Outer phalangeal cells - Tunnel - Inner phalangeal cells
Tectorial membrane

VESTIBULAR SYSTEM - VESTIBULAR FUNCTION OF THE INNER EAR
circular movement - linear movement
cristae ampullares
otoliths - maculae
movement of the stereocilia - electrical impulses - vestibular nerve fibers
Vestibule
Kinocilium - Vestibular aqueduct (endolymphatic duct - endolymphatic sac) - Ductus reuniens
SACS - Endolymphatic duct - Perilymphatic duct - Labyrinth
Utricle (macula) <-> Semicircular canals
Saccule (macula)
macula - Otoliths (Otolithic membrane) -> Neurosensory epithelium - Supporting cells + Type I and II hair cells ( Kinocilium Stereocilia)
SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
Superior - Posterior - Horizontal ->
Ampullae (crista ampullaris) - Ampullary cupula -> Neurosensory epithelium - Supporting cells + Type I and II hair cells ( Kinocilium Stereocilia)

TOC
ORGANS

TOC
LYMPHOID - IMMUNE
(Poirier) V1 PDF
(Poirier Moléculaire) V1 PDF
(Kierszenbaum 2015) V1 PDF
(Gartner BRS 2014) V1 PDF
(Gartner BRS 2018) V2 PDF

OVERVIEW - LYMPHOID (IMMUNE) SYSTEM

LYMPHOID SYSTEM
consists of
capsulated lymphoid organs (thymus, spleen, tonsils, & lymph nodes)
diffuse lymphoid tissue
lymphoid cells (composed primarily of T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, & macrophages)
Primary Organ
Red Bone Marrow
Thymus
Secondary Organ
Lymph Node
Tonsils
Spleen (RP, WP, MZ)
Peyer's Patches
MALT

IMMUNE SYSTEM
has two components, the innate immune system (nonspecific) and the adaptive immune system (specific)
INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM - NATURAL
Complement proteins
TLRs
Natural (polyreactive) antibodies
ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM - ACQUIRED
(cytokines)
Humoral immunity (antibody-mediated: plasma cells)
Cell-mediated immunity (T cells, B cells and antigen-presenting cells)

ACQUISITION OF IMMUNITY
Passive immunity
Maternal antibodies transferred across the placenta to fetus
Antibodies of immunized animals (rabies, tetanus)
Antitoxins (diphtheria)
Active immunity
(post-disease) T cells

IMMUNE SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
primarily to defend the organism by mounting
humoral immune responses against foreign substances (antigens)
and cell-mediated immune responses against microorganisms, tumor and transplanted cells, and virus-infected cells

IMMUNE SYSTEM CELLS

OVERVIEW-CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM: T LYMPHOCYTES, B LYMPHOCYTES, & APCs
T LYMPHOCYTES (T CELLS) & B LYMPHOCYTES (B CELLS)
cytokines - activation resting T cells  B cells -  effector cells
APCs - Accessory cells :
macrophages - Monocyte-derived
lymphoid dendritic cells - Monocyte-derived
Langerhans cells
follicular dendritic cells - Lymph node derived
M cells
B cells
(mast cells & granulocytes are also cells of the immune system)

T LYMPHOCYTES

OVERVIEW
cell-mediated immune responses - thymic-dependent antigens
cluster of differentiation molecules (CD molecules)
T-CELL RECEPTORS (TCRs)
gamma/delta T cells
alpha/beta T cells
natural T killer cells (NKTs) - alpha/beta
T CELLS DO NOT RECOGNIZE ANTIGEN
epitopes - major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules - APCs - MHC restricted
CD1 molecules - CD1 restricted

MATURATION OF ALPHA/BETA T CELLS, GAMMA/DELTA T CELLS, & NKT CELLS
outer region of the thymic cortex - double negative T cells - Notch-1 receptors - thymic epithelial reticular cells
outer thymic cortex - gene rearrangements - double-positive T cells -  immunocompetent
self-MHC-epitope complex molecules - epithelial reticular cells
thymic cortex
MHC I-epitope complexes - single-positive T cells - CD8 markers
MHC II-epitope complexes - single-positive T cells - CD4 markers
single-positive T cells - thymic medulla - naive, T cells
medulla of the thymus
Medullary epithelial reticular cells -  autoimmune response - AIRE - insulin & filaggrin

T LYMPHOCYTE SUBTYPES

NAIVE T CELLS

MEMORY T CELLS
CD45R0 surface molecules
TCMs
TEMs
effector T cells

EFFECTOR T CELLS

T HELPER CELLS
CD4+ - cytokines (lymphokines) -  TH0 cells
TH1 cells - Intracellular pathogens
TH2 cells - Helminth parasites
T17 cells - Bacterial/fungal infections
TH alpha/beta cells
IL-4, IL-5, and IL-6 - IL-10 - IL-9 - IL-13
modulate the immune response

TFH - B cell survival and proliferation

T CYTOTOXIC CELLS - CYTOLYTIC
CD8+ - IL-2 - CTLs - (perforins and granzymes) apoptosis

T reg CELLS
CD4+ -
Natural T reg cells (nT reg cells)
CD25 and Foxp3 - (forkhead family transcription factor box p3) - thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) -  Hassall corpuscles
Inducible T reg cells
TH3 cells

NKTs
lipid antigens

B LYMPHOCYTES

OVERVIEW
immunocompetent - humoral immune response - transitional B cells -  die or undergo final maturation
Mature B cells -  surface immunoglobulins [slgs] - lgalpha and lgbeta - activate - same antigenic determinant (epitope)
B-2 B cells
epitopes - memory B cells
B-1 B cells
carbohydrates
CD40
invading pathogen
APCs
IL-12 - plasma cells and B memory cells

PLASMA CELLS
antibodies specific against the challenging antigen

B MEMORY CELLS
long-lived committed immunocompetent cells - provide - secondary response (anamnestic response)

TWO GROUPS OF B CELLS EXIST IN THE SPLEEN
Follicular B cells
MZ B cells

NK CELLS
belong to a category of null cells, a small group of peripheral blood lymphocytes that lack the surface determinants that are characteristic of T and B lymphocytes
killer activation receptors -  killer inhibition receptors - MHC class I molecules
nonspecific cytotoxicity
antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (AOCC)
perforins and granzymes - apoptosis

MACROPHAGES are not only phagocytes, but also function both as APCs and as cytotoxic effector cells in ADCC
epitopes
IL-1 - TNF-alpha - IL-12 -  interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma)
prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) - IL-6 - IL-12 - IL-18 - IL-23 -  IL-1, IL-6, and TNF- gamma act together to induce an inflammatory process

ANTIGEN PRESENTATION & THE ROLE OF MHC MOLECULES
MHC MOLECULES
class I major histocompatibility molecules (MHC I) - nucleated cells - class II histocompatibility molecules (MHC II) - APCs
endogenous proteins - exogenous proteins
IMMUNOGENS are molecules that are capable of inducing an immune response
antigens - epitopes -  antibody TCR
Exogenous immunogens
class II HLA molecules
CLIP
MHC class II compartment vesicles
presented
Endogenous immunogens
within - viral proteins - tumor proteins
Class I HLA molecules
proteasomes - epitopes - TAP1 & TAP2 - class I HLA
MHC (HLA) RESTRICTION-T LYMPHOCYTES Each subtype of T lymphocytes (except T memory cells) recognizes only epitopes that are associated with either MHC I or MHC II (class I or class II HLA) molecules as follows :

IMMUNOGLOBULINS
plasma cells - specific antibody activity - complement system - eosinophils
STRUCTURE
heavy chains - light chains
constant region -  variable region -  variable regions determine the specificity
IMMUNOGLOBULIN CLASSES
(isotypes) - heavy-chain constant regions
lgA
secretory component
lgD & lgE
mast cells & basophils -  immediate hypersensitivity response - plasma cells
lgG
passive immunity - opsonizing - ADCC
lgM
complement system

DIFFUSE LYMPHOID TISSUE mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
MALT consists of two major types, bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue and gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT)
Peyer patches - ileum
LYMPHOID (LYMPHATIC) NODULES
are transitory dense spherical accumulations of lymphocytes (mostly B cells)
in which the dark, peripheral region of nodules (corona) is composed mainly of small, newly formed lymphocytes
microfold (M) cells - without - lamina propria
SECONDARY NODULES
germinal center - centroblasts and centrocytes
mantle (corona)
Centroblasts
centrocytes - B memory cells or plasma cells
Migrating dendritic cells
Follicular dendritic cells - Macrophages
Reticular cells
PRIMARY NODULES

LYMPHOID ORGANS

BONE MARROW

LYMPH NODES
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF
Immune competent towards lymph-borne antigens
Lymph filtration
OVERVIEW
trabeculae - convex - concave - hilum
stroma : - stromal cells - reticular fibers
FUNCTION
stromal cells - dendritic cells - AIRE
STRUCTURE
chemotactic chemokines lymphocytes (CCLs)

CORTEX
subcapsular sinus
Lymphoid nodules
Sinusoids
subcapsular and cortical sinusoids

PARACORTEX
mostly T lymphocytes - dendritic cells - postcapillary (high endothelial) venules (HEVs)

OUTER CORTEX
B cell-rich lymphoid follicles
Follicular dendritic cells

INNER CORTEX
T cell-rich
High endothelial venules (homing)

MEDULLA
MEDULLARY SINUSES SINUSOIDS
Endothelial cells
Macrophages
MEDULLARY CORDS
B cells
Plasma cells
Macrophages

THYMUS IS A PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGAN
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF
T cell development by clonal selection

OVERVIEW
Incomplete lobules
Stroma: Thymic epithelial cells
endoderm (epithelial reticular cells) - mesoderm (lymphocytes [thymocytes]
capsule - septa - cortical and medullary region
lymphotoxins - involute
STRUCTURE

THYMIC CORTEX
T-cell maturation
Epithelial reticular cells
long processes - tonofilaments - thymopoietin - thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) - AIRE
Thymocytes
immature T lymphocytes
Blood-thymus barrier
cortex only
endothelium - perivascular connective tissue and cells - epithelial reticular cells

THYMIC MEDULLA
epithelial reticular cells and mature T cells
Hassall corpuscles (thymic corpuscles)
TSLP
Thyroxin
Adrenocorticosteroids

SPLEEN
(Dudek HY Histology)  V1 PDF

OVERVIEW
Stroma: Reticular fibers
capsule - trabeculae
lacks a cortex and medulla -  red pulp and white pulp - MZ - no afferent lymphatic vessels

VASCULARIZATION OF THE SPLEEN
splenic artery
Trabecular arteries
periarterial lymphatic sheath (PALS) - central arteries -  penicillar arteries - pulp arterioles, macrophage-sheathed arterioles, and terminal arterial capillaries - (closed circulation) -  (open circulation)
Splenic sinusoids

STRUCTURE

WHITE PULP of the spleen - Immune competent toward blood-borne antigens
all - B cell–rich lymphoid nodules - PALS
Central artery/arteriole - Marginal channel - T cell–rich periarteriolar lymphoid sheath (PALS)

MARGINAL ZONE (MZ) of the spleen is a sinusoidal region
first site where blood contacts the splenic parenchyma
The MZ
MZ macrophages
MZ metallophilic macrophages
MZ B cells
interdigitating dendritic cells
chemotactic chemokines for lymphocytes (CCLs)

RED PULP - Blood filtration and storage
( splenic cords)
Sinusoids
Open blood circulation (into stroma)
Closed blood circulation (into splenic sinusoids)
Splenic cords ( cords of Billroth)

TONSILS ARE AGGREGATES OF LYMPHOID TISSUE which sometimes lack a capsule
chemokines for lymphocytes (CCLs)
Palatine tonsils
pharyngeal tonsil
lingual tonsil
crypts

LYMPHATICS

INFLAMMATION
ACUTE
CHRONIC

TOC
INTEGUMENTARY - SKIN
(Dudek HY Histology)  V1 PDF

OVERVIEW - THE SKIN
THE SKIN CONTAINS SEVERAL EPIDERMAL DERIVATIVES
(sweat glands, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, nails; also the mammary glands)
 =  integument
THE SKIN PROTECTS THE BODY AGAINST INJURY
desiccation, and infection; regulates body temperature; absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which is necessary for synthesis of vitamin D; and contains receptors for touch, temperature, and pain stimuli from the external environment
A DEEPER SUPERFICIAL FASCIAL LAYER
hypodermis, lies under the skin - not considered part of the skin

EPIDERMIS

OVERVIEW - EPIDERMIS
ectodermal origin - stratified squamous keratinized epithelium
Regeneration
epidermal ridges, interdigitate - (dermal ridges) -  interpapillary peg - fingerprints

LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS - KERATINOCYTES

STRATUM OF MALPIGHI = STRATUM BASALE + STRATUM SPINOSUM

STRATUM BASALE (stratum germinativum) is the deepest layer
mitotically active - hemidesmosomes -  keratins 5 and 14 - Melanocytes & Merkel cells

STRATUM SPINOSUM
(prickle cells) - desmosomes - mitotically active - Langerhans cells
superficial regions
membrane-coating granules (Odland bodies, lamellar bodies) -  impermeable to water and many foreign substances
intermediate filaments composed of keratin 1 and keratin 10 - tonofilaments
keratohyalin granules -  filaggrin and tricohyalin - tonofibrils
malpighian layer

STRATUM GRANULOSUM
keratohyalin granules, thick bundles of keratin filaments (tonofibrils) and membrane-coating granules
Keratohyalin granules
tight junctions
claudin
keratohyalin-tonofibril-filled

STRATUM LUCIDUM
palmar and plantar skin - eleidin - involucrin

STRATUM CORNEUM
superficial layer - keratohyalin-keratin complex -  nonviable scale-like - squames
involucrin, small proline-rich protein, and loricrin -  cornified cell envelope
lipid coat -  compound-cornified cell envelope

DESQUAMATION

NONKERATINOCYTES IN THE EPIDERMIS : MELANOCYTES, LANGERHANS CELLS & MERKEL CELLS

MELANOCYTES Melanosomes
stratum basale - premelanocytes - stem cell factor - dendrites - epidermal-melanin unit
MELANIN
melanosomes - melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) - melanocortin 1 receptors (MC1R) - microphthalmia-associated transcription factor - tyrosinase
Eumelanin (or just melanin)
Pheomelanin
myosin Va - F-actin
PHYSICAL BARRIER

LANGERHANS CELLS (dendritic cells) Bierbeck granules
stratum spinosum - langerin
CD1a, in association with langerin
antigen-presenting cells
contact antigens (contact allergies)
delayed-type hypersensitivity reaction

MERKEL CELLS Mechanoreceptor
stratum basale
small, dense-cored granules
Merkel cellneurite complexes mechanoreceptors

THICK & THIN SKIN are distinguished on the basis of the thickness of the epidermis
Thick skin
400 to 600 µm thick - lacks
Thin skin
75 to 150 µm thick

DERMIS
mesodermal origin -  type I collagen fibers - elastic fibers
DERMAL PAPILLARY LAYER is uneven and forms dermal ridges(dermal papillae), which interdigitate with the epidermal downgrowths (epidermal ridges) forming the epidermal/dermal junction
Meissner corpuscles
DEEPER DERMAL RETICULAR LAYER constitutes the major portion of the dermis
type I collagen fibers - elastic fibers
Pacinian corpuscles - Krause end-bulbs
LOCATED AT VARIOUS LEVELS in the dermis are the appendages of the skin

DERMIS - BLOOD SUPPLY - HYPODERMIS
Subpapillary plexus > Papillary layer
Cutaneous plexus > Papillary layer - Reticular layer
Subcutaneous plexus > Hypodermis

SENSORY RECEPTORS
Peritrichial nerve ending - Hair movement
Pacinian corpuscle - Pressure
Ruffini end organ - Stretching
Free nerve ending - Pain Temperature
Merkel cell - Tactile
Meissner corpuscle - Tactile

GLANDS IN THE SKIN
3 TO 4 MILLION ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS (merocrine) Myoepithelial cells
are simple coiled tubular glands consisting of a secretory unit and a single duct
secretory unit of eccrine sweat glands
Dark cells
Clear cells
Myoepithelial cells
ducts of eccrine sweat glands narrow stratified cuboidal epithelial epithelium
interpapillary peg - sweat pore
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS (merocrine) Myoepithelial cells
include the large, specialized sweat glands, approximately 3 mm in diameter, located in various areas of the body (e.g., axilla, areola of the nipple, perianal region) and the ceruminous (wax) glands of the external auditory canal
responsive to hormonal influences
cytoplasm does not become part of the secretions
SEBACEOUS GLANDS (holocrine)
are branched acinar ho/ocrine glands that exhibit a lobular appearance
Clustered acini of one sebaceous gland empty into a single short duct, which delivers the secretion into the neck of the hair follicle
sebum

HAIR, HAIR FOLLICLE & ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE
HAIRS (HAIR SHAFTS) one of the characteristics of mammals, are keratinized, thin, threadlike structures that extend for various lengths above the surface of the epidermis
Lanugo
Vellus hairs
Terminal hairs
A HAIR FOLLICLE is an invagination of the epidermis extending deep into the dermis
hair shaft
medulla, cortex, and cuticle of the hair - hair root - internal root sheath -
hair root
dermal papilla
stem cells
matrix - medulla
internal root sheath - Henle layer, the Huxley layer, and the cuticle of the internal root sheath
external root sheath
glassy membrane
Melanocytes
anagen phase -  catagen phase - telogen phase
THE ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLE attaches at an oblique angle to the dermal sheath surrounding a hair follicle
inserting into the papillary layer - smooth muscle

NAILS
nail bed -  cuticle (eponychium) -  lunula - hyponychium - nail root

TOC
CARDIOVASCULAR
(Poirier) V1 PDF
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF

BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM

HEART
The heart has three layers
endocardium
myocardium
epicardium
Heart valves
atrioventricular (AV)
semi lunar valves
impulse-generating and impulse-conducting system
SA node
AV node
AV bundle of His

ARTERIES
Elastic arteries (conducting arteries)
Muscular arteries (distributing arteries)
Arterioles
Metarterioles
(precapillary sphincters)

CAPILLARIES are small vessels (about 8-10 µmin diameter and usually less than 1 mm long)
selective permeability - capillary beds
CAPILLARY ENDOTHELIAL CELLS
pericytes - desmin or vimentin - fasciae occludentes
THREE TYPES OF CAPILLARIES
Continuous (basal lamina) (somatic) capillaries
pinocytotic vesicles
nervous tissue, muscle, connective tissue, exocrine glands, & the lungs
Fenestrated (visceral) capillaries
bridged by a diaphragm - continuous
endocrine glands, the intestine, the pancreas, & the glomeruli of kidneys
Sinusoidal capillaries
fenestrae that lack diaphragms - discontinuous
PERMEABILITY OF CAPILLARIES
histamine & bradykinin
METABOLIC FUNCTIONS OF CAPILLARIES
endothelial cells
BLOOD FLOW TO CAPILLARY BEDS
metarterioles - terminal arterioles
ARTERIOVENOUS SHUNTS (AV ANASTOMOSES)
thermoregulation

VEINS
COMPARISON WITH ARTERIES
TYPES OF VEINS

SPECIALIZED SENSORY MECHANISMS WITHIN ARTERIES INCLUDE THREE TYPES OF SENSORS: THE CAROTID SINUS, CAROTID BODY, & THE AORTIC BODIES
baroreceptor
chemoreceptor
Hormonal response to low blood pressure or volume starts with the kidney

LYMPHATIC VASCULAR SYSTEM
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES
LARGE LYMPHATIC VESSELS

TOC
RESPIRATORY
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF
(Le FA 1 2021) V1 PDF

OVERVIEW - RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
the lungs and a series of airways that connect the lungs to the external environment, can be functionally classified into two major subdivisions: a conducting portion, consisting of airways that deliver air to the lungs, and a respiratory portion, consisting of structures within the lungs in which oxygen in the inspired air is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the blood
COMPONENTS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
possess characteristic lining epithelia, supporting structures, glands, and other features

AIR CONDUCTING PORTION : Nasal cavity > Larynx > Trachea > Bronchi > Bronchioles
warm, moisten, & filter the air

NASAL CAVITY is subdivided by the median nasal septum into right and left nasal cavities, each leading to the para nasal sinuses, thus providing a large surface area for filtering, moistening, and warming the inspired air
NARES  thin skin
vestibule -  nonkeratinized - respiratory epithelium
vibrissae - vascularized -  seromucous glands
NASAL CAVITY
superior, middle, and inferior conchae (turbinate bones)
PARANASAL SINUSES
OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM
pseudostratified columnar epithelium -  veins  unmyelinated nerves  Bowman glands
Olfactory cells
bipolar nerve cells - ( olfactory vesicle)
Olfactory cilia are very long, nonmotile cilia
9 + 2 axoneme pattern - singlet
Supporting ( sustentacular) cells
microvilli and a prominent terminal web
Basal cells
regenerative
Bowman glands
thin, watery secretion - odorants

NASOPHARYNX the posterior continuation of the nasal cavities, becomes continuous with the oropharynx at the level of the soft palate
respiratory epithelium -  stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium
mucous and serous glands - Waldeyer's ring -  pharyngeal tonsil - adenoid
Auditory tubes (Eustachian tubes)

LARYNX connects the pharynx with the trachea
hyaline cartilages - elastic cartilages - skeletal muscle - glands
vocal cords
Space of Reinke - vocal ligament and vocal muscle - Stratified squamous epithelium
vocalis muscle - vocal ligament - stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium
respiratory epithelium
Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
nonstratified and stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium

TRACHEA is the largest conducting section of the respiratory system - Respiratory epithelium - Hyaline cartilage plates - C-shaped hyaline cartilage
extrapulmonary (primary) bronchi - C-shaped hyaline cartilages - trachealis muscle -  fibroelastic
MUCOSA
RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM
Ciliated cells
microvilli
goblet cells
large secretory granules - mucinogen droplets
Small granule-mucous cells (brush cells)
small mucous granules - divide
Diffuse neuroendocrine system cells = small-granule cells - basal
polypeptide hormones & serotonin - (paracrine regulation)
endocrine effect
Basal cells
divide
BASEMENT MEMBRANE
lamina propria - elastic fibers
SUBMUCOSA
seromucous glands
ADVENTITIA
C-shaped hyaline cartilages

EXTRAPULMONARY (PRIMARY) BRONCHI
are the continuation of the trachea as it divides into the left and right bronchi

INTRAPULMONARY BRONCHI (SECONDARY BRONCHI)
are lined by respiratory epithelium, they arise from subdivisions of the primary bronchi as these enter the hilum of the lung
Spiraling smooth muscle bundles - seromucous glands - plates of irregularly shaped cartilage - lobar

BRONCHIOLES
Smooth muscle in the lamina propria
Cartilage plates absent
Simple-to-cuboidal ciliated epithelium

PRIMARY & TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES LACK GLANDS in their submucosa
smooth muscle
PRIMARY BRONCHIOLES
ciliated columnar goblet cells > ciliated cuboidal club cells (Clara cells)
They divide to form several terminal bronchioles after entering the pulmonary lobules
TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES  most distal part of the conducting portion
simple cuboidal epithelium - club cells
Ciliated cuboidal epithelium - Club cells - Cartilage & goblet cells absent
CLUB CELLS = CLARA CELLS
secrete a surfactant-like - alveolar surface tension -  club cell secretory protein
metabolize airborne toxins

RESPIRATORY PORTION : Terminal bronchioles + (Respiratory bronchioles + Alveolar ducts + Alveolar sac + Alveoli = Acinus) = Lobule
exchange of gases
RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES mark the transition from the conducting to the respiratory portion of the respiratory system
simple low cuboidal epithelium - club cells - ciliated cells - alveoli - Smooth muscle knobs
ALVEOLAR DUCTS - ALVEOLAR SACS - ALVEOLI
Capillaries - Macrophages - Dendritic cells - Alveolar type 2 cells > Surfactant - Alveolar type 1 cells + Capillaries = Dual basal laminae - Air-blood barrier
ALVEOLAR DUCTS are linear passageways continuous with the respiratory bronchioles whose walls consist of adjacent alveoli, which are separated from one another only by an interalveolar septum
type II pneumocytes - attenuated simple squamous epithelium of type I pneumocytes - smooth muscle cells - knobs
ALVEOLAR SACS are expanded outpouchings of numerous alveoli at the distal ends of alveolar ducts
ALVEOLI are pouch-like evaginations about 200 µmin diameter in the walls of respiratory bronchioles, in alveolar ducts, and in alveolar sacs, have thin walls, across which oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse between the air and the blood
OVERVIEW
highly attenuated simple squamous epithelium - pneumocytes
interalveolar septa - alveolar pores
elastic fibers -  reticular fibers
ALVEOLAR CELLS
TYPE I PNEUMOCYTES (TYPE I ALVEOLAR CELLS)
thin cytoplasm
tight junctions -  phagocytic - not able to divide
TYPE II PNEUMOCYTES (TYPE II ALVEOLAR CELLS, GREAT ALVEOLAR CELLS, GRANULAR PNEUMOCYTES, AND SEPTAL CELLS)
cuboidal - near septal intersections - microvilli - tight junctions
divide and regenerate - pulmonary surfactant - lamellar bodies
pulmonary surfactant
phospholipids, dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine - surfactant-associated proteins - SP-A, SP-B,SP-C, and SP-D - cholesterol
tubular myelin - monomolecular film -  lower aqueous phase - superficial lipid phase
reduces the surface tension at the air-liquid interface - opsonizing - macrophages ( dust cells)
ALVEOLAR MACROPHAGES (ALVEOLAR PHAGOCYTES; DUST CELLS)
phagocytes -  ciliary action

INTERALVEOLAR SEPTUM
the wall, or partition, between two adjacent alveoli, is bounded on its outer surfaces by the extremely thin simple squamous epithelium lining the alveoli
elastic and reticular fibers - continuous capillaries
blood-gas barrier
Structure
Type I pneumocytes and layer of surfactant
Fused basal laminae of type I pneumocytes and capillary endothelial cells
Endothelium of the continuous capillaries
interstitial area - unjused basal laminae
Function
diffusion of gases - Oxygen - carbon dioxide

LUNG LOBULES
single primary bronchiole

PULMONARY VASCULAR SUPPLY
THE PULMONARY ARTERY
carries blood to the lungs to be oxygenated - its branches follow the bronchioles
IN LUNG LOBULES, PULMONARY VEINS
run in the intersegmental connective tissue, separated from the arteries - run parallel to branches of the pulmonary artery
BRONCHIAL ARTERIES AND VEINS
provide nutrients to and remove wastes from the nonrespiratory portions of the lung (bronchi, bronchioles, interstitium, and pleura)
 
PULMONARY NERVE SUPPLY
autonomic fibers to the smooth muscle of bronchi and bronchioles -  Parasympathetic stimulation contraction - Sympathetic stimulation relaxation

TOC
URINARY
(Poirier) V1 PDF
(Dudek HY Histology) V2 PDF

CONTENTS
OVERVIEW - URINARY SYSTEM
KIDNEYS
URINIFEROUS TUBULES
RENAL BLOOD CIRCULATION
REGULATION OF URINE CONCENTRATION
EXCRETORY PASSAGES
END OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW - URINARY SYSTEM = Kidneys + Excretory passages (Collecting tubule -> Collecting duct -> Papillary duct)
kidneys - ureters -  bladder - urethra
urine -  calcitriol [1.25-(0H)2 vitamin D3]

KIDNEYS = Vascularization + Uriniferous tubule
KIDNEYS ARE PAIRED bean-shaped organs enveloped by a thin capsule of connective tissue
cortex - medulla
nephron - collecting tubule - uriniferous tubule
THE RENAL HILUM is a concavity on the medial border of the kidney
THE RENAL PELVIS is a funnel-shaped expansion of the upper end of the ureter
major renal calyces - minor calyces
THE RENAL MEDULLA lies deep to the cortex but sends extensions (medullary rays) into the cortex
renal (medullary) pyramids
loops of Henle - collecting tubules
renal papilla
apex - (area cribrosa)
THE RENAL CORTEX the superficial layer of the kidney beneath the capsule, consists primarily of renal corpuscles and convoluted tubules
Renal columns of Bertin - medullary rays -  cortex -  straight portions - collecting ducts
THE RENAL LOBE consisting of a renal pyramid and its closely associated cortical tissue, is subdivided into renal lobules
interlobular artery -  nephrons
THE RENAL INTERSTITIUM is the connective tissue compartment of the kidney
fibroblasts and mononuclear cells - pericytes - interstitial cells - medullipin I -  medullipin II

URINIFEROUS TUBULES = Nephron (Renal corpuscle + Renal tubule) + Collecting duct
NEPHRONS - CORTICAL, MIDCORTICAL, & JUXTAMEDULLARY

Corpuscule RC

Tubule T

PROXIMAL tubule =
Proximal convoluted tubule PCT +
Pars recta = DESCENDING THICK limb of the Henle loop HL

THIN DESCENDING limb of the HL
HL
THIN ASCENDING limb of the HL

DISTAL tubule =  
Pars recta = ASCENDING THICK limb of the HL +
Very short macula densa MD JG apparatus JGA + JG cells in afferent arteriole +
Distal convoluted tubule DCT - Connecting tubule

Collecting tubule - Collecting duct

RENAL CORPUSCULE = (Capillaries -> Glomerulus) + Bowman capsule + Mesangial cells
filtration of blood
BOWMAN CAPSULE
parietal layer
simple squamous
visceral layer
podocytes
Bowman space capsular space or urinary space
vascular pole
urinary pole
PODOCYTES visceral layer
glomerular endothelial growth factor
primary processes
Pedicels
podocalyxin - alpha3 beta1 integrin
Filtration slits
filtration slit diaphragm
nephrin - podocin - CD2-associated proteins - actin filaments
RENAL GLOMERULUS
tuft of capillaries - fenestrae - lack the thin diaphragms
basal lamina
between - both - thick - zones -  lamina rara externa -  lamina densa - lamina rara interna
mesangium
Mesangial cells - contract - manufacture - receptors for angiotensin II and atrial and B-type natriuretic peptides
Mesangial matrix
RENAL FILTRATION BARRIER
fenestrated endothelium - basal lamina - filtration slit diaphragm
permits passage - prevents passage - ultrafiltrate of blood plasma
laminae rarae
heparan sulfate - restricting the passage of negatively charged proteins
lamina densa
type IV collagen - perlecan, laminin, entactin, and agrin - selective macromolecular filter
GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

PCT
STRUCTURE  irregularly shaped
Brush border
apical tubulovesicles - protein absorption
lysosomes,
mitochondria - active transport
glucose transporters, Na+K+- adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) pump
Na+-K+ ATPase pump
FUNCTION
resorbs
exchanges
secretes

EARLY PCT
Reabsorbs all glucose & amino acids & most HCO3–, Na+, Cl–, PO43–, K+, H2O, & uric acid
Isotonic absorption
Generates and secretes NH3, which enables the kidney to secrete more H+
PTH-inhibits Na+/PO43– cotransport → ↑ PO43– excretion.
AT II-stimulates Na+/H+ exchange → ↑ Na+, H2O, and HCO3− reabsorption (permitting contraction alkalosis)
65–80% Na+ and H2O reabsorbed

LOOPS OF HENLE

DESCENDING THICK LIMB OF THE HENLE LOOP
(pars recta) -  cuboidal - brush border

THIN LIMB OF THE HENLE LOOP
squamous -  cortical nephrons - juxtamedullary nephrons -  three
DESCENDING THIN LIMB
passively reabsorbs H2O via medullary hypertonicity (impermeable to Na+)
Concentrating segment
Makes urine hypertonic
HENLE LOOP
ASCENDING THIN LIMB

ASCENDING THICK LIMB OF THE HENLE LOOP
(pars recta) - cuboidal - uromodulin
macula densa - JGA
reabsorbs Na+, K+, and Cl−. Indirectly induces paracellular reabsorption of Mg2+ and Ca2+ through ⊕ lumen potential generated by K+ backleak
Impermeable to H2O
Makes urine less concentrated as it ascends
10–20% Na+ reabsorbed

JUXTAGLOMERULAR (JG) APPARATUS
vascular pole
JG CELLS (modified smooth muscle of afferent arteriole)
JG cells secrete renin in response to ↓ renal blood pressure and ↑ sympathetic tone (β1)
MACULA DENSA CELLS (NaCl sensor located at the DCT)
Macula densa cells sense ↓ NaCl delivery to DCT → ↑ renin release → efferent arteriole vasoconstriction → ↑ GFR.
monitor the osmolarity and volume
EXTRAGLOMERULAR MESANGIAL CELLS =  polkissen = lacis cells
MAINTAINS BLOOD PRESSURE
decrease in extracellular fluid volume - decrease in blood pressure - decrease in sodium concentration - renin
angiotensin I - angiotensin II -  aldosterone - release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Water follows the ions - increasing the fluid volume
principal cells - AQP-2 channels -  membrane
JGA maintains GFR via renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
β-blockers ↓ BP by ↓ CO and inhibiting β1- receptors of the JGA → ↓ renin release

DCT
lacks a brush border - resorbs Na+ -  aldosterone
EARLY DCT
—reabsorbs Na+, Cl−
Impermeable to H2O
Makes urine fully dilute (hypotonic)
PTH - ↑ Ca2+/Na+ exchange → ↑ Ca2+ reabsorption
5–10% Na+ reabsorbed

CONNECTING TUBULE
Principal cells
remove Na+ - secrete K+
Intercalated cells = Interstitial cells ????
remove K+ - secrete H+

COLLECTING TUBULES - HAVE A DIFFERENT EMBRYONIC ORIGIN FROM THAT OF NEPHRONS
- reabsorbs Na+ in exchange for secreting K+ & H+ (regulated by aldosterone)
Aldosterone—acts on mineralocorticoid receptor → mRNA → protein synthesis
In principal cells : ↑ apical K+ conductance, ↑ Na+/K+ pump, ↑ epithelial Na+ channel (ENaC) activity → lumen negativity → K+ secretion
In α-intercalated cells : lumen negativity → ↑ H+ ATPase activity → ↑ H+ secretion → ↑ HCO3−/Cl− exchanger activity.
ADH—acts at V2 receptor → insertion of aquaporin H2O channels on apical side
3–5% Na+ reabsorbed
CORTICAL COLLECTING TUBULES
( cortical labyrinth) -  cuboidal
Principal (light) cells
primary cilium
Intercalated (dark) cells
alpha-intercalated cells -  H+ ions
beta -intercalated cells -  HC0-3 ions - hydrogen pumps - HCO-3 pumps
MEDULLARY COLLECTING TUBULES
outer - principal and intercalated cells - principal cells
PAPILLARY COLLECTING TUBULES (DUCTS OF BELLINI)
columnar - primary cilium - area cribrosa

RENAL BLOOD CIRCULATION
ARTERIAL SUPPLY TO THE KIDNEY
Branches of the renal artery → interlobar arteries → arcuate arteries →
Interlobular arteries between adjacent medullary rays →
Afferent (glomerular) arterioles supply the glomerular → capillaries →
Efferent (glomerular) arterioles
Efferent (glomerular) arterioles → peritubular capillary network (CT) → Interlobular vein → Arcuate vein
Efferent (glomerular) arterioles → Vasa recta (HL) → Arcuate vein
Vasa recta  juxtamedullary nephrons
(arteriolae rectae) -  (venulae rectae)
associated with the descending and ascending limbs of Henle's loops and collecting ducts
VENOUS DRAINAGE OF THE KIDNEY
Stellate veins
superficial cortical vein
Deep cortical veins
Deep cortical veins
Interlobular veins
receive both stellate and deep cortical veins and join arcuate veins
Arcuate vein → Interlobar vein  → Renal vein

REGULATION OF URINE CONCENTRATION
OVERVIEW
(hypotonic) - (diuresis) - (hypertonic) - (antidiuresis) - ADH
THE COUNTERCURRENT MULTIPLIER SYSTEM
refers to the establishment of an increasing osmotic concentration gradient in the renal interstitium that extends from the outer medulla to the renal papilla
ion and water exchanges - filtrate in different parts of the loop of Henle -  renal interstitium
In the descending limb of the loop of Henle
isotonic - hypertonic
In the ascending thin and thick limbs of the loop of Henle - impermeable to water
cl- is actively transported - passively -  interstitium - hypotonic
In the distal convoluted tubule
ROLE OF COLLECTING TUBULES
absence of ADH
impermeable to water -  hypotonic urine
presence of ADH
principal cells - permeable to water - hypertonic urine
COUNTERCURRENT EXCHANGE SYSTEM
involves passive ion and water exchanges between the renal interstitium and the blood in the vasa recta, the small straight vessels associated with the loops of Henle
THE EFFECT OF UREA
is to aid in the production and maintenance of the interstitial osmotic gradient, mostly in the inner medulla
Urea
Urea concentrations
sodium and chloride -  outer medulla -  inner medulla - urea
 
EXCRETORY PASSAGES
Collecting duct → Papillary duct → Area cribrosa (papilla) →
Urothelium - Smooth muscle
Calyces - Ureter - Urinary bladder - Urethra
OVERVIEW
mucosa lined with transitional epithelium -  muscularis (smooth muscle), and an adventitia
THE URETER
conveys urine from the renal pelvis of each kidney to the urinary bladder
transitional epithelium
two-layer muscularis
peristaltic waves
THE URINARY BLADDER
possesses a transitional epithelium with a morphology that differs in the relaxed (empty) and distended (full) states, a thin lamina propria of fibroelastic connective tissue, and a three-layer muscularis
epithelium of the relaxed bladder
rounded dome-shaped cells - plaques - elliptical vesicles
epithelium of the distended bladder
squamous cells
URETHRA
two-layer muscularis - external sphincter of skeletal muscle
Male urethra
Prostatic urethra -  transitional epithelium
Membranous urethra - Cavernous = Penile urethra - pseudostratified or stratified columnar epithelium
fossa navicularis - stratified squamous epithelium - glands of Littre
Female
Inner smooth muscle - External striated muscle
stratified squamous epithelium - glands of Littre

TOC
DIGESTIVE
(Dudek HY Histology Esophagus) V1 PDF
(Dudek HY Histology Stomach) V1 PDF
(Dudek HY Histology Small Intestine) V1 PDF
(Dudek HY Histology Large Intestine) V1 PDF

CONTENTS

OVERVIEW - DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - TUBE

ORAL REGION - CAVITY - MOUTH
LIPS
PALATE
TEETH
DENTAL-SUPPORTING STRUCTURES
TONGUE

ALIMENTARY CANAL DIVISIONS
ESOPHAGUS
STOMACH
SMALL INTESTINE
LARGE INTESTINE

DIGESTION & ABSORPTION

END OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW - DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - TUBE
oral region, alimentary canal ( esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines), and several extrinsic glands - enzymes and hormones
MUCOSA = M
Epithelium = E
Lamina propria -  loose, cellular CT - housing glands = LP
Layers of Muscularis mucosae = MM
SUBMUCOSA - denser CT - Meissner’s plexus = Submucosal  = SM
House glands in 2 regions = G
Mucosal glands (Esophagus)
Brunner’s glands (Duodenum)
MUSCULARIS EXTERNA = ME
Inner (circular) - Auerbach’s plexus = Myenteric - Outer (longitudinal)
ADVENTITIA (ESOPHAGUS)/SEROSA = A S
ENS ANS

ORAL REGION - CAVITY - MOUTH
stratified squamous epithelium - epithelial ridges +  connective tissue papillae = rete apparatus
lining mucosa - masticatory mucosa - specialized mucosa

LIPS
are divided into the external (skin) region, the vermilion zone, and the internal (mucosal) region
Sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and hair follicles - minor salivary glands - Fordyce's granules

PALATE
separates the nasal cavity from the oral cavity and is divided into an anterior hard palate (possessing a bony shelf in its core); a posterior soft palate (possessing skeletal muscle in its core); and the posterior terminus of the soft palate, the uvula
nasal aspect -  pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
HARD PALATE
parakeratinized - keratinized - mucoperiosteum
SOFT PALATE
nonkeratinized

TEETH
are composed of an internal soft tissue, the pulp, & three calcified tissues: enamel & cementum, which form the surface layer, & dentin, which lies between the surface layer & pulp
calcium hydroxyapatite - crown - cervix
TOOTH COMPONENTS
Enamel - Ameloblasts
Dentin - Odontoblasts
Cementum - Cementoblasts
Dental pulp - Odontoblasts
CROWN FORMATION
ROOT FORMATION

DENTAL-SUPPORTING STRUCTURES
PERIODONTAL LIGAMENT
GINGIVAE (GUMS)
ALVEOLAR BONE

TONGUE
OVERVIEW
sulcus terminalis -  foramen cecum
parakeratinized to keratinized epithelium - nonkeratinized epithelium - lamina propria and submucosa - core
LINGUAL PAPILLAE
dorsal surface of the anterior two-thirds
FILIFORM PAPILLAE
highly keratinized
FUNGIFORM PAPILLAE
taste buds
FOLIATE PAPILLAE
CIRCUMVALLATE PAPILLAE
sulcus terminalis
Taste buds Basal cells → Taste cells
Glands of von Ebner serous secretion
MUSCULAR CORE OF THE TONGUE skeletal muscle fibers
minor salivary glands
A LINGUAL TONSIL (S ?)
posterior one-third

ALIMENTARY CANAL DIVISIONS

ESOPHAGUS
is lined by a
stratified squamous nonkeratinized E - Longitudinal folds - Submucosal glands
stratified squamous nonkeratinized E - Epithelial transformation zone - Cardiac glands
esophageal cardiac glands - MM
M
SM
Submucosal glands - esophageal glands proper
ME
skeletal muscle - smooth and skeletal muscle - smooth muscle -  striated by vagus nerve (CN X) - smooth ENS
bolus -  peristaltic activity - sphincters - bolus
A

STOMACH
acidifies and converts the bolus into a thick, viscous fluid known as chyme. It also produces digestive enzymes and hormones
cardiac region (cardia) - fundic region (fundus) - pyloric region (pylorus)
gastric pits (foveolae)
M - rugae - SM
simple columnar - surface lining cells - not goblet cells - visible mucus
LP - gastric glands
MM
SM
collagenous - Meissner (submucosal) plexus
ME
three layers - pyloric sphincter - Auerbach myenteric plexus -  emptying rate
S
GASTRIC GLANDS
cardia, fundus, and pylorus
isthmus -  neck - base
CARDIAC GLANDS
Simple tubular glands with coiled end mucus-secreting cells
GASTRIC GLANDS - CELLS OF THE FUNDIC GLANDS
Parietal (oxyntic) cells
hydrochloric acid (HCI) and gastric intrinsic factor
tubulovesicular system -  intracellular canaliculi - microvilli
Chief (zymogenic) cells
gland - pepsinogen - pepsin - rennin - lipase
Surface mucous cells ?
Mucous neck cells
soluble mucus
Diffuse neuroendocrine system (ONES) cells
open and closed - basal
Regenerative cells
PYLORIC GLANDS
Simple tubular glands with branched end mucus-secreting cells
GASTRIC JUICE
very acidic
REGULATION OF GASTRIC SECRETION
Gastrin and histamine
stimulate HCI secretion
Somatostatin
indirectly inhibits HCI secretion
Urogastrone =  human epidermal growth factor
gastric inhibitory peptide along with prostaglandins - directly inhibit HCI secretion

SMALL INTESTINE Plica circulares - Intestinal villi - Intestinal glands (of Lieberkühn)
OVERVIEW
Duodenum Leaflike shaped villi - Brunner’s glands - Extensive adventitia Incomplete serosa
Jejunum Long finger-like villi - Paneth cells - Serosa
Ileum Short finger-like villi - Paneth cells - Peyer’s patches - Serosa
LUMINAL SURFACE
Plicae circulares (valves of Kerckring)
mucosa and submucosa
Intestinal villi
single lacteal
Microvilli
apical
M Simple columnar epithelium - Enterocytes, goblet cells, tuft cells, stem cells and enteroendocrine cells
SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
Goblet cells
unicellular exocrine glands - mucinogen - apical region (theca) - mucin - protective coating - (stem)
Surface absorptive cells
(striated border) - glycocalyx - tight junctions - zonulae adherentes
DNES cells
gastrin, cholecystokinin, gastric inhibitory peptide
LP
glands (crypts) of Lieberkuhn -  lymphoid nodules - lacteals - capillary loops
CRYPTS OF LIEBERKUHN
Paneth cells
lysozyme - defensins and tumor necrosis factor
Regenerative cells
stem cells
Intermediate cells
LYMPHOID NODULES Peyer patches
M (microfold) cells
Activated B lymphocytes
Plasma cells
lgA - protein J -  lgA-receptor complex -  (transcytosis) - secretory lgA (slgA) - enterohepatic circulation
MM
SM
fibroelastic - Meissner plexus - Brunner glands -  alkaline fluid and urogastrone -  (human epidermal growth factor)
ME Inner circular smooth muscle layer - Outer longitudinal smooth muscle layer
two - ileocecal sphincter. Auerbach (myenteric) plexus
EXTERNAL LAYER OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
S
A

LARGE INTESTINE - Plica circulares & intestinal villi absent - Haustra, appendices epiploicae, and glands (of Lieberkühn)
OVERVIEW
large intestine consists of the cecum, colon - rectum, anal canal, and appendix
vitamin B12 and vitamin K
abundant mucus
Function
absorption of electrolytes, fluids, and gases - feces
CECUM/APPENDIX - ASCENDING, TRANSVERSE, DESCENDING COLON - SIGMOID COLON - RECTUM
Simple columnar epithelium
Tubular glands of Lieberküh
Enterocytes, goblet cells and enteroendocrine cells
Lymphatic nodules
Paneth cells absent
Bundles of the outer longitudinal smooth muscle fuse to form the taeniae coli
CECUM & COLON
M
lacks villi - epithelium is simple columnar
LP
Fibroblasts
Lymphoid elements
gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT)
Lymphoid drainage
MM
SM
fibroelastic - Meissner ( submucosal) plexus
ME
teniae coli - haustra coli - Auerbach (myenteric) plexus
EXTERNAL LAYER
appendices epiploicae
LUMEN OF LARGE INTESTINE
microbiome - enterotypes
RECTUM Upper region (rectum proper) - Lower region (anal canal) - Epithelial transformation zone - Anus
ANAL CANAL
M
rectal columns of Morgagni - anal valves -  anal sinuses
E
simple cuboidal - stratified squamous nonkeratinized - stratified squamous keratinized
LP
fibroelastic
MM
SM
ME
internal anal sphincter
A
EXTERNAL ANAL SPHINCTER
skeletal muscle - continuous tonus -  voluntary control
ANUS - Stratified squamous epithelium - Inner circular smooth muscle layer forms the internal anal sphincter - External anal sphincter formed by skeletal muscle
APPENDIX
thickened -  lymphoid nodules
M
E
simple columnar
LP
numerous lymphoid nodules - shallow crypts of Lieberkiihn
MM
SM
fibroelastic
ME
S

DIGESTION & ABSORPTION

CARBOHYDRATES
Salivary and pancreatic amylases
disaccharides and polysaccharides
Disaccharidases
Monosaccharides
Na+ -  hepatic portal vein system

PROTEINS
Pepsin
polypeptides
Pancreatic proteases
Dipeptides
hepatic portal vein system

FATS
are degraded by pancreatic lipase into MONOglycerides, free fatty acids, and glycerol in the lumen of the small intestine
Absorption of lipid digestion products
duodenum and upper jejunum
Bile salts - water-soluble micelles - glycerol
Formation of chyle
Triglycerides
Chylomicrons - lacteals - chyle
Chyle
thoracic duct - systemic circulation
Short-chain fatty acids
ofless than 10 to 12 carbon atoms are not reesterified
hepatic portal vein system

WATER & ELECTROLYTES
are absorbed by surface absorptive cells of both the small and large intestine, whereas gases are absorbed mostly in the large intestine.

TOC
DIGESTIVE GLANDS
(Dudek HY Histology Liver & Gallbladder)  V1 PDF
(Dudek HY Histology Pancreas) V1 PDF

CONTENTS
OVERVIEW - DIGESTIVE SYSTEM EXTRINSIC GLANDS
MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS
PANCREAS
LIVER
GALLBLADDER
END OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW-DIGESTIVE SYSTEM EXTRINSIC GLANDS

MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS
OVERVIEW
paired exocrine glands: the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands
secretory component -  (lgA) dimer receptor molecule
proteins - striated ducts - kallikrein -  kininogens - bradykinin
Lysozyme, thiocyanate, and lactoferrin
Salivary amylase
THE MAJOR SALIVARY GLANDS
are compound tubuloacinarglands - serous, mucous, or mixed
SALIVARY GLAND ACINI - Secretory portion
intercalated duct - serous demilunes
myoepithelial cells - salivon
primary secretion - final secretion
Parotid glands - serous
Long intercalated duct - Short striated duct
Sublingual glands - mucous tubules - serous demilunes
Poorly developed intercalated and striated ducts
Submandibular glands - serous and mucous
Short intercalated duct - Long striated duct
SALIVARY GLAND DUCTS - Excretory duct
Intercalated ducts
bicarbonate ions
Striated (intralobular) ducts
ion-transporting cells - (primary saliva) - secondary saliva
Interlobular (excretory) ducts
main duct
SALIVA
is a hypotonic solution produced at the rate of about 1 L/d
lubricates and cleanses
controls bacterial flora
digestion of carbohydrates

PANCREAS Serous acinus - Centroacinar cells - Myoepithelial cells absent - Intercalated duct - Striated duct absent
digestive enzyme - exocrine portion
hormones - endocrine portion (islets of Langerhans)

THE EXOCRINE PANCREAS is a serous compound tubu/oacinar gland
PANCREATIC ACINAR CELLS
Zymogen ( secretory) granules - apical
PANCREATIC DUCTS
centroacinar cells
intralobular ducts -  interlobular ducts
main pancreatic duct - ampulla of Vater - major duodenal papilla
EXOCRINE PANCREATIC SECRETIONS
Enzyme-poor alkaline fluid
intercalated duct cells - secretin - ACh - neutralizes
Digestive enzymes
acinar cells - CCK = pancreozymin - enzymes -  proenzymes
proenzymes
trypsin inhibitor

ISLETS OF LANGERHANS (ENDOCRINE PANCREAS)
are richly vascularized spherical clusters (100-200 pm in diameter) of endocrine cells surrounded by a fine network of reticular fibers
islet cells
ISLET HORMONES
Glucagon
alpha cells and acts to elevate the blood glucose level
Insulin
beta cells and acts to decrease the blood glucose level
Mechanism of insulin release - (glucose transporter protein 2 [GLUT-2])
Mechanism of insulin action - GLUT-4
Somatostatin and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
delta cells and delta1 cells (D cells and D1 cells) - inhibits
reduces - induces
Gastrin
G cells, stimulates
Pancreatic polypeptide
PP cells, inhibits
Ghrelin
epsilon cells

LIVER

OVERVIEW
hepatocyte - Glisson capsule
bile and plasma proteins

LIGHT MICROSCOPIC OBSERVATION OF THE LIVER
may be interpreted in three different ways, giving rise to three coexisting concepts of liver lobule:.. classic liver lobule, portal lobule, and acinus of Rappaport
CLASSIC LIVER LOBULE
plates of hepatocytes (liver cells) -  central vein
Portal areas (portal canals or portal triads) - Portal space
functional unit of the liver is made up of hexagonally arranged lobules surrounding the central vein with portal triads on the edges
consisting of a
Hepatic artery/arteriole
Bile duct-ule
Portal venule/vein
as well as lymphatics
Each portal area is surrounded by the limiting plate - A narrow space, known as the space of Mall, separates the limiting plate from the connective tissue elements of the portal area
Liver sinusoids
sinusoidal lining cells ( endothelial cells) -  fenestrations -  lack basal laminae - phagocytic cells (Kupffer cells)
Space of Disse -> Space of Mall -> Lymphatic vessel
subendothelial space - fat-storing cells (Ito cells also known as perisinusoidal stellate cells) - tumor growth factor beta - myofibroblasts
PORTAL LOBULE
triangular region - three -  bile flow
HEPATIC ACINUS OF RAPPAPORT
diamond-shaped region -  two -  blood flow - three zones
Zone I—periportal zone :
Affected 1st by viral hepatitis
Best oxygenated, most resistant to circulatory compromise
Ingested toxins (eg, cocaine)
Zone II—intermediate zone :
Yellow fever
Zone III—pericentral (centrilobular) zone :
Affected 1st by ischemia (least oxygenated)
High concentration of cytochrome P-450
Most sensitive to metabolic toxins (eg, ethanol, CCl4, rifampin, acetaminophen)
Site of alcoholic hepatitis

BLOOD, BILE, & LYMPH FLOW
BLOOD FLOW INTO THE LIVER
Dual blood supply to liver : portal vein (~80%) and hepatic artery (~20%).
BLOOD FLOW OUT OF THE LIVER
hepatic vein - sublobular veins - central veins
BILE FLOW
opposite - hepatic ducts
Bile canaliculi
exocrine secretion - canals of Hering (bile ductules) - modified hepatocytes - cholangiocytes (duct cells)
Bile ducts
hepatic ducts
LYMPH
thoracic duct

HEPATOCYTES
are large polyhedral cells (20-30 pm in diameter) that possess
abundant RER and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER); numerous mitochondria, lysosomes, and peroxisomes; several Golgi complexes; and many lipid droplets and glycogen deposits
Hepatocyte surfaces - Apical surface of hepatocytes faces bile canaliculi - Basolateral surface faces sinusoids
Hepatocyte surfaces facing the space of Disse
Hepatocyte surfaces abutting adjacent hepatocytes - bile canaliculi -  occluding junctions

LIVER FUNCTIONS CARRIED OUT BY HEPATOCYTES INCLUDE :
Exocrine secretion
bile
Endocrine secretion
plasma proteins
Metabolites are stored
glycogen -  triglycerides
Gluconeogenesis
Detoxification
Phase I microsomal mixed-function oxidase
Phase II
lgA transfer
enterohepatic circulation

HEPATIC FUNCTIONS CARRIED OUT BY CELLS OTHER THAN HEPATOCYTES :
Kupffer cells (specialized macrophages) located in sinusoids clear bacteria and damaged or senescent RBCs
Hepatic stellate (Ito) cells = Perisinusoidal celli n space of Disse store vitamin A (when quiescent) and produce extracellular matrix (when activated) - Responsible for hepatic fibrosis

GALLBLADDER
is a small oblong sac located on the inferior surface of the liver that can store as much as 70 ml of bile
cystic duct -  CCK
mucosa is composed of a simple columnar epithelium
muscle layer is composed of a thin, oblique layer of smooth muscle cells
connective tissue layer
serosa
FUNCTION

TOC
ENDOCRINE

OVERVIEW - ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
ductless glands, clusters of cells - diffuse neuroendocrine system cells (DNES cells)

HORMONES
WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES
interact with specific cell surface receptors on target cells, which communicate a message that generates a biologic response by the cell
G protein-linked receptors
Catalytic receptors
LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES
diffuse across the plasma membrane of target cells and bind to specific receptors in the cytosol or in the nucleus, forming hormone-receptor complexes that regulate transcription of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

PITUITARY GLAND (HYPOPHYSIS) & HYPOTHALAMUS
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF
pituitary gland - hypophyseal fossa -  sella turcica
hypothalamus - supraoptic and paraventricular -  hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract
releasing hormones -  arcuate, paraventricular (and medial paraventricular), periventricular, ventromedial, and dorsal nuclei
primary capillary bed -  hypophyseal portal system - secondary capillary bed

ADENOHYPOPHYSIS
originates from an ectodermal diverticulum of the stomodeum (Rathke pouch)

PARS DISTALIS
fenestrated

CHROMOPHILS

OVERVIEW
stimulatory & inhibitory hormones -  neurosecretory cells hypothalamus - median eminence
ACIDOPHILS 
orange or red
Somatotrophs
somatotropin (growth hormone) GH -  somatotropin-releasing hormone (SRH) - somatostatin
Liver > Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) > Osteoblasts
Mammotrophs (lactotrophs)
prolactin PRL - prolactin-releasing hormone & thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) - dopamine prolactin-inhibiting hormone [PIH]
Lactating mammary gland
BASOPHILS
blue
Corticotrophs
pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) - ACTH = Adrenocorticotropic hormone, melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), and lipotropic hormone (LPH) - corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
Adrenal cortex > Zona reticularis Zona fasciculata
Thyrotrophs
TSH - TRH
Follicular cells (thyroid)
Gonadotrophs
FSH and luteinizing hormone (LH) - interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH) - gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) > Sertoli cells (testes) Granulosa cells (ovaries)
Lutenizing hormone (LH) > Leydig cells (testes) Corpus luteum (ovaries)

CHROMOPHOBES

FOLLICULOSTELLATE CELLS

PARS INTERMEDIA
colloid-containing cysts (Rathke cysts) - basophilic cells - pro hormone POMC, which is cleaved to form ACTH, lipotropin, and MSH

PARS TUBERALIS
basophilic cells

NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
infundibulum &  pars nervosa
HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL TRACT
neurosecretory cells - supra optic SON and paraventricular nuclei PVN
oxytocin & antidiuretic hormone (ADH; vasopressin), each bound to neurophysin carrier
PARS NERVOSA
Herring bodies
Pituicytes
Unmyelinated axons
Collecting tubule (kidneys)
Myometrium (labor) Myoepithelial cell (lactation)
PITUICYTES

VASCULARIZATION OF THE PITUITARY GLAND
Arterial supply
hypophyseal arteries - superior -  inferior
Hypophyseal portal system
primary capillary plexus -  median eminence -  hypophyseal portal veins
secondary capillary plexus - fenestrated -  pars distalis

REGULATION OF THE PARS DISTALIS
negative feedback

THYROID GLAND
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF
isthmus - parathyroid glands - follicles

THYROID FOLLICLES are spherical structures filled with colloid, a viscous gel consisting mostly of iodinated thyroglobulin
follicular cells - parafollicular cells - fenestrated capillaries

FOLLICULAR CELLS are normally cuboidal, but they become columnar when stimulated and squamous when inactive
apical vesicles -  thyroxine (T 4) and triiodothyronine (T 3) -  TSH

PARAFOLLICULAR CELLS also called clear( C, cells because they stain less intensely than thyroid follicular cells are present singly or in small clusters of cells between the follicular cells and basal lamina
DNES cells

PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS OF THYROID HORMONES
GLAND REGULATED BY THE HYPOPHYSIS
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - Thyroid gland - Thyroid follicle - Thyroid follicle cell - Exocrine phase - Thyroglobulin - Iodothyroglobulin - Endocrine phase -
T4 & T3 - increase the basal metabolic rate
CELL REGULATED BY CALCIUM
C cell -
Calcitonin - Osteoclast - inh Bone resorption

PARATHYROID GLANDS
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF

OVERVIEW not controlled by the pituitary gland, Gland regulated by calcium

CHIEF CELLS small basophilic cells arranged in clusters of anastomosing cords, surrounded by a rich, fenestrated capillary network, possess a central nucleus, a well-developed Golgi complex, abundant RER, small mitochondria, glycogen, and secretory granules of variable size
parathyroid hormone (PTH, or parathormone) - inhibit
Ca2+ receptor (CaSR)
Parathyroid hormone - Osteoblast - Osteoclastogenesis - Bone resorption

OXYPHIL CELLS large, eosinophilic cells that are present singly or in small clusters within the parenchyma of the gland , possess many large, elongated mitochondria, a poorly developed Golgi complex, and only a limited amount of RER
The function of these cells is not known

PTH functions primarily to increase blood calcium levels by indirectly stimulating osteoclasts to resorb bone
tetany

ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) GLANDS
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF

ADRENAL CORTEX Gland regulated by the hypophysis > Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
contains parenchymal cells that synthesize and secrete but do not store various steroid hormones - steroidogenic acute regulatory protein
ZONA GLOMERULOSA < Angiotensin II
shelf-like cristae - mineralocorticoids - aldosterone - deoxycorticosterone
angiotensin II & ACTH
ZONA FASCICULATA
sinusoidal capillaries - spongiocytes - tubular vesicular cristae - lipofuscin pigment granules
glucocorticoids - cortisol and corticosterone
ZONA RETICULARIS
lipofuscin pigment granules - weak androgens - dehydroepiandrosterone and some androstenedione - Sex hormones

ADRENAL MEDULLA  is completely invested by the adrenal cortex < Acetylcholine
chromaffin cells - epinephrine - norepinephrine - sympathetic ganglion cells
CHROMAFFIN CELLS
chromogranins
preganglionic sympathetic (cholinergic) fibers
epinephrine (80%) norepinephrine (20%)

BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE ADRENAL GLANDS
is derived from the superior, middle, and inferior adrenal arteries, which form three groups of vessels: to the capsule, to parenchymal cells of the cortex, and directly to the medulla
Cortical blood supply
fenestrated
Straight, discontinuous, fenestrated
Medullary blood supply
Venous blood
Arterial blood
Medullary veins

PINEAL GLAND (PINEAL BODY, EPIPHYSIS)
OVERVIEW
roof of the diencephalon - pia mater
(brain sand)
PINEALOCYTES are pale-staining cells with numerous long processes that end in dilations near capillaries
synaptic ribbons
melatonin - arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase
NEUROGLIAL ( INTERSTITIAL ) CELLS resemble astrocytes, with elongated processes and a small, dense nucleus

TOC
MALE
(Poirier) V1 PDF
(Dudek HY Histology) V1 PDF

CONTENTS
OVERVIEW-MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
SPERMATOGENESIS - TESTES = seminiferous tubule (Sertoli) + intertubular space (Leydig)
SPERM TRANSPORT & MATURATION
Seminiferous tubule → Tubulus rectus → Rete testis → Ductuli efferentes → Epididymis → Ductus deferens (vas) → Spermatic cord → Seminal vesicles → Prostate → Urethra
GENITAL DUCTS
ACCESSORY GENITAL GLANDS
URETHRA
PENIS
END OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW-MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The male reproductive system
consists of the testes, genital ducts, accessory genital glands (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands), and the penis
Function
The male reproductive system produces spermatozoa (sperm), testosterone, and seminal fluid
Embryonic development of the gonads
is a function of the SRY gene (sex-determining region on the Y chromosome)
SRY - testis-determining factor

SPERMATOGENESIS - TESTES = Seminiferous tubule (Sertoli) + Intertubular space (Leydig)
SPERM TRANSPORT & MATURATION
Seminiferous tubule → Tubulus rectus (straight tubule) → Rete testis → Ductuli efferentes (efferent ductules) → Epididymis → Ductus deferens (vas deferens)  → Spermatic cord → Seminal vesicles → Prostate  → Urethra
spermatic cords -  spermatogenesis - sex hormones, primarily testosterone

TESTICULAR TUNICAE
(covering of the testes) are applied to the testes as they descend through the abdominal wall to enter the scrotum
tunica vaginalis
serous sac
Tunica albuginea
tunica vasculosa - mediastinum testis

THE LOBULI TESTES
are pyramidal intercommunicating compartments that are separated by incomplete septa
seminiferous tubules

INTERSTITIAL CELLS OF LEYDIG <- LH + PRL
round to polygonal cells in the interstitial regions between seminiferous tubules, possess a large central nucleus, numerous mitochondria, a well-developed Golgi complex, and many lipid droplets
endocrine cells - testosterone ABP -  luteinizing hormone
Secrete testosterone in the presence of LH ; testosterone production unaffected by temperature - Interstitium - Endocrine cells - Homolog of female theca interna cells

SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES
30 to 70 cm long, with a diameter of 150 to 250 pm, are enveloped by a fibrous connective tissue tunic composed of several layers of fibroblasts and extensive capillary beds
tubuli recti - rete testis
(seminiferous or germinal epithelium) - spermatogenic cells - Sertoli cells

Basal compartment - SERTOLI CELLS - Adluminal compartment
zonulae occludentes
Sertoli cells are temperature sensitive, line seminiferous tubules, support sperm synthesis, and inhibit FSH
LOCATION
Line seminiferous tubules - Non–germ cells
FUNCTION
Tight junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells form blood-testis barrier → isolate gametes from autoimmune attack
Secrete Inhibin B → inhibit FSH - as well as the hormone Activin
Secrete androgen-binding protein ABP → maintain local levels of testosterone - Convert testosterone and androstenedione to estrogens via aromatase
anti-Miillerian hormone (Miillerian-inhibiting substance)
testicular transferrin -  serum transferrin
Produce MIF
Support and nourish developing spermatozoa - Homolog of female granulosa cells
Regulate spermatogenesis
Temperature sensitive; ↓ sperm production and ↓ inhibin B with ↑ temperature - ↑ temperature seen in varicocele, cryptorchidism

SPERMATOGENESIS
Shortly before puberty, the rise in gonadotrophins initiates spermatogenesis, the process of spermatozoon (sperm) formation
not -  cycles of the seminiferous epithelium
intercellular bridges -  syncytium - synchronous development - any one

SPERMATOGENIC CELLS
spermatogonia, diploid - spermatocytes - spermatids
SPERMATOGONIA
Type A (human : pale, dark) → Type B
Maintain germ cell pool and produce 1° spermatocytes - Line seminiferous tubules - Germ cells
SPERMATOCYTES
Primary spermatocytes (Meiosis I) → Secondary spermatocyte (Meiosis II)
SPERMATIDS

SPERMIOGENESIS
cytodifferentiation -  spermatids - transform into spermatozoa
Golgi phase
acrosomal granule - acrosomal vesicle - flagellar axoneme -  connecting piece
cap phase
acrosomal cap
acrosomal phase
nucleus
spermatid - manchette
maturation phase
nonmotile - capacitated

SPERMATOZOON
HEAD - Acroplaxome = nucleus + acrosome
hydrolytic enzymes - acrosome reaction
HEAD-TAIL COUPLING APPARATUS
TAIL  - Axoneme, mitochondria, outer dense fibers, fibrous sheath
neck - connecting piece - outer dense fibers
middle piece - annulus - sheath of mitochondria - fibrous sheath
principal piece
end piece - tail axoneme intra-lumenal spiral (TAILS)

REGULATION OF SPERMATOGENESIS
CRITICAL TESTICULAR TEMPERATURE
pampiniform plexus of veins
HORMONAL INTERACTIONS
Certain neurons in the hypothalamus
Stimulation of testicular hormone production
testosterone - ABP
Testosterone
ABP
Inhibition and stimulation of FSH and LH release
testosterone
lnhibin
Activin

Seminiferous tubule Sertoli cells (columnar) Myoid cells →
GENITAL DUCTS

INTRA-TESTICULAR DUCTS Sertoli cells (cuboidal) Myoid cells
TUBULI RECTI
simple cuboidal epithelium -  microvilli -  flagellum
RETE TESTIS
simple cuboidal epithelium -  flagellum

EXTRA-TESTICULAR DUCTS Principal cells - Basal cells
DUCTULI EFFERENTES Circular smooth muscle layer increasing in thickness - Ciliated cells
head of the epididymis
simple epithelium - alternating clusters ofnonciliated cuboidal cells and ciliated columnar cells - festooned
smooth muscle
DUCTUS EPIDIDYMIS Circular smooth muscle layer increasing in thickness - Caput (head) → Corpus (body) → Cauda (tail) →
epididymis - circular layers of smooth muscle - peristaltic contractions
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
Basal cells
Principal cells -  glycerolphosphocholine, which inhibits capacitation
DUCTUS (VAS) DEFERENS Outer and inner smooth muscle layers
thick muscular wal
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
EJACULATORY DUCT
colliculus seminalis

Ductus deferens (vas deferens) - Spermatic cord Pampiniform venous plexus Nerves Arteries Cremaster muscle Vas deferens - Ampulla ↓ Seminal vesicles ↓ → Ejaculatory ducts → Prostate → Urethra

ACCESSORY GENITAL GLANDS

SEMINAL VESICLES Simple columnar to pseudostratified epithelium
pseudostratified epithelium - extensively folded mucosa - yellow lipochrome pigment granules -  secrete -  activate sperm
Lamina propria - fibroelastic
adventitia - fibroelastic

PROSTATE GLAND
Central zone - Periurethral glands - Benign prostatic hyperplasia
Transition zone - Periurethral submucosal glands
Peripheral zone - Main prostatic glands - Prostate cancer
Overview
branched tubuloacinar glands - (mucosal, submucosal, and main) - fibroelastic capsule
epithelium
simple or pseudostratified columnar
Corpora amylacea
concretions
prostate secretes

BULBOURETHRAL (COWPER) GLANDS
are adjacentto the membranous urethra, lined by a simple cuboidal or columnar epithelium and surrounded by a fibroelastic capsule containing smooth and skeletal muscle

URETHRA
two-layered muscularis - external sphincter of skeletal muscle
THE MALE URETHRA IS ABOUT 20 CM LONG
and is divided into prostatic, membranous, and cavernous portions
IT IS LINED BY
transitional epithelium in the prostatic portion and by pseudostratified or stratified columnar epithelium in the other two portions
fossa navicularis - stratified squamous epithelium
IT CONTAINS MUCUS-SECRETING
glands of Littre in the lamina propria

PENIS
flaccid - erection - semen -  ejaculation
CORPORA CAVERNOSA ARE PAIRED MASSES
of erectile tissue that contain irregular vascular spaces lined by a continuous layer of endothelial cells
parasympathetic impulses
THE CORPUS SPONGIOSUM IS A SINGLE MASS
of erectile tissue that contains vascular spaces of uniform size
trabeculae
CONNECTIVE TISSUE AND SKIN
tunica albuginea
Glans penis
foreskin - prepuce
Glands of Littre

TOC
FEMALE
(Poirier) V1 PDF
(Dudek HY Histology 2013) V1 PDF

CONTENTS
OVERVIEW - FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
FOLLICULOGENESIS & MENSTRUAL CYCLE
OVARIES
OVIDUCTS (FALLOPIAN TUBES OR UTERINE TUBES)
UTERUS
CERVIX
FERTILIZATION & IMPLANTATION - PLACENTATION & LACTATION
PLACENTA
VAGINA
EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA)
MAMMARY GLANDS
END OF CONTENTS

OVERVIEW - FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
consists of the paired ovaries and oviducts ; the uterus, vagina, and external genitalia.
and the paired mammary glands, although, technically, the mammary glands are part of the integument because they are highly modified sweat gland
menarche - menopause

FOLLICULOGENESIS & MENSTRUAL CYCLE

OVARIES Folliculogenesis → Luteinization
Folliculogenesis
Primordial follicle → Primary follicle → Secondary follicle → Graafian follicle
Luteinization
Granulosa lutein cells - Theca lutein cell

OVERVIEW & EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
germinal epithelium - tunica albuginea -  cortex - medulla
urogenital ridge -  gonadal ridge -  primitive germ cells - yolk sac -  indifferent gonads
apoptosis
primary oocytes - oocyte maturation inhibitor (OMI) - primordial follicle

THE OVARIAN CORTEX CONSISTS OF OVARIAN FOLLICLES
Ovary, outer surface Simple cuboidal epithelium (germinal epithelium covering surface of ovary)
in various stages of development and a connective tissue stroma, which contains cells that respond in unique ways to hormonal stimuli

OVARIAN FOLLICLES

Zona pellucida ZP
Theca interna TI - Functional cooperation - Granulosa cells
Theca externa TE
Follicular cells FC → Granulosa cells G(C)
Cumulus oophorous
Follicular atresia

Granulosa lutein cells GLC - Functional cooperation - Theca lutein cell TLC

Primordial = primary oocyte + flattened follicular cells = squamous GC
Primary (Unilayered) = Larger oocyte + Basal Lamina + Follicular cells = cuboidal GC
Multilaminar primary (late stage)  = ZP + (Follicular cells = layers of GC) + (Theca Folliculi = Theca Cells)
Secondary (Multilayered) Vesicular or pre-antral  = ZP + GC + BM + Theca Folliculi - In secondary follicles, a fluid-filled antrum appears in the zona granulosa
Cells in the theca interna produce androgens which cell in the granulosa convert to estrogen
Graafian Antral or pre-ovulatory = ZP + Corona radiata + Antrum + Membrana granulosa + TI + TE - Graafian follicles contain an eccentrically localized oocyte and large antrum
Most Graafian follicles undergo atresia which leads to their degeneration
After releasing its ovum, the Graafian follicle becomes a corpus luteum
The theca lutein and granulosa lutein cells produce progesterone and estrogen
Without implantation of an embryo, the corpus luteum degenerates into a corpus albicans

PRIMORDIAL FOLLICLES
basic reproductive units - primary oocyte -  single layer of follicular cells -  arrested development -  transforming growth factor beta superfamily -  primordial follicles are "recruited" ( activated) - insulin and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Primary oocytes
(germinal vesicle) - cortical granules
arrested in prophase (dictyate stage) of meiosis I by paracrine factors (OMI)
Follicular cells
desmosomes - basal lamina

GROWING FOLLICLES
Granulosa cells - anti-Miillerian hormone (Miillerian inhibiting substance)
PRIMORDIAL & PRIMARY FOLLICLES
not dependent on FSH - epidermal growth factor, insulin-like growth factor, activin, and Ca+2 ions
PRIMARY FOLLICLES
zona pellucida (ZP) - FSH receptors
ZP
ZP 2 and ZP 3 - acrosome reaction
After fertilization
ovastacin - ZP 1
Unilaminar primary follicles
cuboidal follicular cells
Multilaminar primary follicles
activin - bone morphogenetic protein 15 (BMP-15) and growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF-9) - granulosa cells
(theca interna) - (theca externa)
Granulosa cells - stem cell factor (kit ligand) -  primary oocyte plasma lemma - theca interna cell membrane - primary oocyte - theca interna cells
androstenedione - luteinizing hormone (LH) receptors -  aromatase - estrogen
SECONDARY (ANTRAL) FOLLICLES
liquor folliculi -  dependent on FSH
BMP-15 and GDF-9

GRAAFIAN (MATURE) FOLLICLE
will ovulate - FSH independent - inhibin
(cumulus oophorus) - liquor folliculi -  antrum - corona radiata - membrana granulosa
androstenedione (androgen) - aromatase - estrogen - 17b-estradiol
theca externa
Ovulation
maturation promoting factor - ( a complex of cycline-dependent kinase and cyclin B) - primary oocyte - ovulation - secondary oocyte - first polar body
ovulation -  corona radiata
corpus hemorrhagicum - corpus luteum of menstruation - corpus albicans - corpus luteum of pregnancy -  corpus albicans
Time period of folliculogenesis

CORPUS HEMORRHAGICUM

CORPUS LUTEUM
temporary endocrine gland
Granulosa lutein cells
progesterone - estrogen
Theca lutein cells
progesterone - androgens

CORPUS ALBICANS
T cells - interferon-gamma - tumor necrosis factor alpha

ATRETIC FOLLICLES
dominant follicle - inhibin

THE OVARIAN MEDULLA
contains large blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers in a loose connective tissue stroma
estrogen-secreting interstitial cells and a few androgen-secreting hilar cells.

HORMONAL REGULATION
Folliculogenesis
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)  → Synthesis of estrogens
Luteinization
Luteinizing hormone (LH) → Synthesis of progesterone
Oviduct
Estrogens → Ciliated cells
Non-ciliated secretory cells
Uterus
Estrogens → Proliferative endometrium
Progesterone → Secretory endometrium
P + E → Cervix
P + E → Vagina

CONTROL OF FOLLICLE MATURATION & OVULATION
activin -  stem cell factor (kit ligand) - primary oocyte plasmalemma - theca interna cell membranes -  primary oocyte -  theca intern a cells
BMP-15 and GDF-9
Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH)
FSH
Surge of LH
dominant Graafian follicle
inhibin -  atresia
FATE OF THE CORPUS LUTEUM
Progesterone
Estrogen -  relaxin
In the event of pregnancy
hCG
hCS
In the absence of pregnancy
corpus luteum begins to atrophy
IN EACH MENSTRUAL CYCLE
dominant follicle -  inhibin

OVIDUCTS (FALLOPIAN TUBES OR UTERINE TUBES) Simple columnar epithelium, ciliated
4 regions
Infundibulum - fimbriated end
Ampulla
Isthmus
Intramural segment
Cells
Ciliated cells <- Estrogens
Non-ciliated secretory cells
THE MUCOSA
has extensive longitudinal folds in the infundibulum
EPITHELIUM
simple columnar
Peg cells
nutrient-rich medium - capacitation
Ciliated cells
LAMINA PROPRIA
THE MUSCULARIS
composed of an ill-defined inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle, contract rhythmically to assist in moving the developing embryo toward the uterus
THE SEROSA
which is composed of a simple squamous epithelium overlying a thin connective tissue layer, covers the outer surface of the oviduct

UTERUS Simple columnar epithelium with long tubular glands in proliferative phase; coiled glands in secretory phase
3 regions
fundus
body (corpus)
cervix
THE UTERINE WALL
ENDOMETRIUM
Proliferative endometrium <- Estrogens
Secretory endometrium <- Progesterone
menstrual cycle - simple columnar - secretory and ciliated cells -  stellate cells -  reticular fibers
functionalis (functional layer)
basalis (basal layer) - glands - reepithelialization
endometrial vascular supply
stratum vasculare - coiled arteries - straight arteries
MYOMETRIUM
vascularized - stratum vasculare
oxytocin - prostaglandins - apoptosis
EXTERNAL COVERING
Serosa
Adventitia
THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE BEGINS on the day menstrual bleeding appears
estrogen, progesterone, FSH, and LH are very low
MENSTRUAL PHASE (DAYS 1-4)
hemorrhagic discharge (menses) - spasms of contraction and relaxation - vasoconstriction
vasodilation
THE PROLIFERATIVE (FOLLICULAR) PHASE  days 4 to 14
renewal of the entire functional layer - estrogen
THE SECRETORY (LUTEAL) PHASE (DAYS 15-28)
thickening of the endometrium - Progesterone - estrogen
coiled - glycoprotein material and glycogen - glycogen

CERVIX <- Progesterone + Estrogen
Endocervix - Simple columnar epithelium
Transformation zone TZ - Squamocolumnar junction (most common area for cervical cancer; sampled in Pap test)
Ectocervix - Stratified squamous epithelium, nonkeratinized
THE CERVIX
does not participate in menstruation, but its secretions change during various stages of the menstrual cycle
cervical glands
THE CERVICAL WALL
is composed mainly of dense collagenous connective tissue interspersed with numerous elastic fibers and a few smooth muscle cells
THE CERVIX HAS A SIMPLE COLUMNAR
(mucus-secreting) epithelium except for the inferior portion (continuous with the lining of the vagina), which is covered by a stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium
PRIOR TO PARTURITION
the cervix dilates and softens as a result of the lysis of the collagen fiber bundles in response to the hormone relaxin

FERTILIZATION, IMPLANTATION, PLACENTATION & LACTATION

FERTILIZATION
usually takes place within the ampulla of the oviduct it occurs when a spermatozoon penetrates the corona radiata and the ZP and pierces the plasma membrane of a secondary oocyte
BEFORE A SPERMATOZOON IS CAPABLE OF FERTILIZING
SPERM MATURATION
In epididymis
SPERM CAPACITATION
In oviduct sperm storage site
fertilization promoting peptide (FPP)
Cholesterol molecules
Ca2+ ion channels
cyclic adenosine monophosphate
HYPERACTIVITY
ONCE THE SPERMATOZOON HAS UNDERGONE CAPACITATION
acrosome reaction, bind to ZP 3 - fuse to the plasma membrane of the secondary oocyte
ACROSOME REACTION Sperm plasma membrane - fusion - Outer acrosomal membrane - Ampulla (oviduct)
binding to ZP 3 - acrosin
FUSION
fertilin - CD9 molecules and integrins
SECONDARY OOCYTE
cortical reaction - resuming the second meiotic division -  female pronucleus
cortical granules - Cortical reaction -> - polyspermy
Release of acrosomal enzymes - Corona radiata - Zona pellucida - Sperm-egg fusion

IMPLANTATION - PLACENTATION = Trophoderm + Placenta
zygote - cleavage -  morula - conceptus
blastocyst
Trophoderm
cytotrophoblast (mitotic) -> syncytiotrophoblast (postmitotic)
syncytiotrophoblast - Interstitial invasion into maternal lacunae
Extraembryonic mesoderm - Fetal blood vessels
Primary villi - Secondary villi - Tertiary villi

PLACENTA
transient - maternal portion - fetal portion
Chorionic plate (fetal component) - Intervillous space - Decidual basalis (maternal component)
Villus stem - Villus tree
STRUCTURE
cytotrophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts form the chorion and in response, the endometrium of the uterus forms the decidua
chorionic plate - chorionic villi
decidua basal is, decidua capsularis, and decidua parietalis
lacunae
placental barrier
FUNCTION
without
progesterone, hCG, chorionic thyrotropin, and hCS
estrogen
prostaglandins and prolactin

VAGINA Stratified squamous epithelium - nonkeratinized - with intracellular deposits of glycogen <- Progesterone + Estrogen
a fibromuscular canal with a wall that is composed of three layers, an inner mucosa, a middle muscularis, and an external adventitia, is circumscribed by a skeletal muscle sphincter at its external orifice
MUCOSA
stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium - lamina propria
epithelium
glycogen - lactic acid
lamina propria
highly vascular
MUSCULARIS
smooth muscle -  elastic fibers
ADVENTITIA
fibroelastic

EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA) Stratified squamous epithelium
THE LABIA MAJORA
are fat-laden folds of skin ; hair and secretions of sebaceous glands and sweat glands are present on their external surfaces
THE LABIA MINORA
folds of skin that possess a core of highly vascular connective tissue containing elastic fibers, lack hair follicles, but their dermis contains numerous sebaceous glands, which open directly onto the epithelial surface
THE VESTIBULE
is the space between the two labia minora
Glands of Bartholin (mucus-secreting glands) and numerous smaller mucus-secreting glands around the urethra and clitoris (minor vestibular glands) open into this space
THE CLITORIS
composed of two small, cylindrical erectile bodies, which terminate in the prepuce-covered glans clitoridis, contains many sensory nerve fibers and specialized nerve endings (e.g., Meissner corpuscles and Pacinian corpuscles)

MAMMARY GLANDS
compound tubuloacinar (tubuloalveolar) glands
NONLACTATING (RESTING) MAMMARY GLANDS
(in adult, nonpregnant women) are composed of lactiferous sinuses and ducts lined in most areas by a stratified cuboidal epithelium, with a basal layer consisting of scattered myoepithe/ia/ cells
LACTATING (ACTIVE) MAMMARY GLANDS Excretory component - Lactiferous duct
are enlarged during pregnancy by the development of acini (alveoli)
Secretory unit - Mammary Alveolar cells (secretory cells) - Myoepithelial cell
Secretion by alveolar cells
Lipids - apocrine
Proteins - merocrine
THE NIPPLE
composed of dense, irregular collagenous connective tissue interlaced with smooth muscle fibers that act as a sphincter, contains the openings of the lactiferous ducts
(areola) - areolar glands (of Montgomery)
SECRETIONS OF THE MAMMARY GLANDS
colostrum (protein-rich yellowish fluid)
immunoglobulin A (lgA)
Milk
milk ejection reflex - oxytocin - myoepithelial cells

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REFERENCES

DIDACTIC & GENERAL

Dudek. HY Cell & Molecular Biology. 3e. 2010. [ 150 pages ] [ Download ]
Chandar. LIR Cell & Molecular Biology. 3e. 2023. 2e. 2018. [ 288 pages ]
Stubbs. Crash Course : Cell Biology and Genetics. 4e. 2015. [ 216 pages ] [ Download ]
Seve. Biologie Cellulaire. PACES. 2015.

Peckham. Histology at a Glance. 1e. 2011. [ The Histology Guide ]
Vollmar-Hesse. [ HistoNet 2000 ]
Riedinger. Histology 1st year medical school. 2011. [ 24 pages ] [ Download ] [ Download ] [ dr-cee.net ]
Dudek. HY Histology & Histopathology. 2e. 2013. [ 350 pages ] [ Download 2e ] [ Download 1e ]
Blue Histology. [ UNIVERSITY of WESTERN AUSTRALIA / Lecture & Lab Notes ] [ Sites d'Histologie lecannabiculteur.free.fr ]
Gartner. BRS Cell Biology & Histology. 9e. 2024. 8e. 2018. [ 448 pages ] [ Download ] [ Read 7e ]
Gartner. Color Atlas & Text of Histology. 7e. 2017. [ 544 pages ] [ Download 6e ] [ Read 2e fr ]
Gartner. Textbook of Histology. 5e. 2020. [ 704 pages ] [ Download 4e ]
Kierszenbaum. Histology & Cell Biology, An Introduction to Pathology. 5e. 2019. 4e. 2015. [ 824 pages ] [ Download ] [ Backup ]

Pawlina. Histology: A Text and Atlas: With Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology. 8e. 2018. [ 928 pages ]
Young. Wheater's Functional Histology: A Text and Colour Atlas, 6e. 2013. [ 464 pages ] [ Read 5e ]
Mescher. Junqueira's Basic Histology: Text and Atlas.15e. 2018. [ 1136 pages ]
Kuehnel. Color Atlas of Cytology, Histology and Microscopic Anatomy. 4e. 2003.
Burns. RR Histology & Cell Biology. 2e. 2006. [ 336 pages ]
Mills. Histology for Pathologists. 5e. 2019. [ 1344 pages ] [ Download 4e ]
Ovalle. Netter's Essential Histology : With Correlated Histopathology (Netter Basic Science). 3e. 2020. [ 568 pages ] [ Download ]

Poirier. Histologie. 4e. 1993.
Poirier. Histologie moléculaire. 5e. 1997.
Hennebicq. Histologie. PACES. 2015.
https://www.mcours.net/cours/pdf/scien/Histologie%20_les_tissus.pdf
https://archives.uness.fr/sites/campus-unf3s-2014/histologie-et-embryologie-medicales/poly-histologie-et-embryologie-medicales.pdf
https://mcours.net/cours/pdf/scien/Histologie_organes_systemes_et_appareils.pdf

CELL
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26880/table/A1721/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26880/
http://cellimagelibrary.org/home
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology

NERVOUS

SENSORY
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanoreceptor
MERKEL
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merkel_nerve_ending
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1350526/
KRAUSE
https://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/winkelmann/
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10312780/

EYE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_eye#/media/File:Schematic_diagram_of_human_eye_multilingual.svg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruch%27s_membrane#/media/File:Buchs_membrane.svg
https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corps_ciliaire#/media/Fichier:Schematic_diagram_of_anterior_segment_human_eye.svg
CILIARY BODY
https://www.em-consulte.com/em/SFO/2014/html/file_100018.html

EAR
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_window#/media/File:Blausen_0330_EarAnatomy_MiddleEar.png
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochlear_duct#/media/File:Blausen_0329_EarAnatomy_InternalEar.png
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochlea#/media/File:Cochlea-crosssection.svg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/1409_Maculae_and_Equilibrium.jpg
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/1410_Equilibrium_and_Semicircular_Canals.jpg

RESPIRATORY
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_tract
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_epithelium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_tract#/media/File:Respiratory_Tract_Histological_Differences.png

GASTROINTESTINAL
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_wall
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrointestinal_wall#/media/File:GI_Organization.svg

PANCREAS

LIVER
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobules_of_liver
https://histology.siu.edu/erg/liver.htm
https://web.archive.org/web/20070125120420/http://www.cvm.okstate.edu/instruction/mm_curr/histology/HistologyReference/HRD2.htm

URINARY
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephron
https://febs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/febs.15088
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephron#/media/File:Kidney_nephron_molar_transport_diagram.svg

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folliculogenesis
https://www.anshlabs.com/wp-content/uploads/collateral/folliculogenesis_final.j
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallopian_tube#/media/File:Scheme_female_reproductive_system-number-full-cropped.svg
https://ubwp.buffalo.edu/histology/female-reproductive-histology/

MALE
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activin_and_inhibin
PTM
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211124715008475#fig1

UNSORTED
https://medschool.vanderbilt.edu/cdb/
medicalschoolpathology.com
ShotgunHistology
virtualslidebox
http://www.siumed.edu/~dking2/intro/ct.htm
https://www.bu.edu/phpbin/medlib/histology/m/index.htm
http://www.bio-nica.info/biblioteca/johnson1991histologyandcellbiology.pdf

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MORE REFERENCES

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